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Vol. 43

FEBRUARY 1917

No. m

..^....^^.....J ||||||||||f|'T^f,'^||,'j9|7,T,r,P>i|BLI^^^ LIBRARY

United Svd'^^z'^
Naval Institu

Proceedings

2670

GENEALOGY

973.001

AAINAVI,

1917,

FEP

'MADE IN AMERICA"
insulation" lOUIS STEINBERGER'S PATENTS

LIGHTNING-PROOF INSULATORS

1000 TO 1,000,000 VOLTS
INSULATORS ARE STANDARD WITH

UNITED STATES NAVY «»? ARMY

AND WIRELESS TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE COMPANIES

No. 7490

No. 6634

Sole Manufacturers

60-82 Washingtoi St. 66-76 Front St.
27-37 York St. 1-23 Flint St.

BROOKLYN, N. Y., AMERICA

Please mention the PEOOEEDINGS when writing advertisers

-- «»* - 'MADE IN AMERICA

aEau.s^T.oFF.airaMioiw

INSULATION LOUIS STEINBERGER'S PATENTS

LIGHTNING-PROOF INSULATORS

1000 TO 1,000,000 VOLTS

INSULATORS ARE STA

UNITED STATES NAVY

AND WIRELESS TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHO

No. 7490

Sole Manufacturers

No. 6854

60-82 Washingtoi St. 66-76 Front St.
27-37 York St. 1-23 Flint St.

BROOKLYN, N. Y., AMERICA

Please mention the PHOCEEDINGS when writing advertisers

INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS

jManiifacturers of or dealers in

Post office address

Page

Bethlehem Steel Co.

C
Cohn, Herman

Col't's Firearms Co..

South Bethlehem, Pa.

Continental' Iron Works,
The

D
Davidson Co., M. T

Outfitter Chief Petty and Warrant
Officers

Revolvers, Automatic Pistols, Ma-
chine Guns

]\Iorison Suspension Furnaces

45 Sands St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Hartford, Conn

Du Pont de Nemours Pow
der Co., E. I.

S^team Pumps, Pumping Engine

Condensers, Evaporators, etc.
Du Pont Powder

West and Calyer Sts., N. Y.,
Borough of Brooklyn

43-53 Keap Sit., Brooklyn,

N. Y.
Wilmington, Del

Electric Boat Co.
ElectroseMfg.Co.

Goldschmidt Thermit Co..

Griscom-Russell Co., The.

I
International Nickel Co..

I nternational Printing Co.

Submarine Torpedo Boats ti Fine St., New York, N. Y.i....24

Electrose Insulators :6o-82 Washington Street,

j Brooklyn, N. Y.

Thermit Process |The Equitable Building, 120 ....14

I Broadway. New York

Engineers-Manufacturers :2i52 West St. Bldg., New ....19

\ York

Nickel for Nickel Steel {43 Exchange Place, Newi..-.20

I York, N. Y. !
U. S. :\Iarine Corps Score Book. . . . '236 Chestnut St., Phila., Pa 21

Journal of the U n i t e djMagazine Fort Monroe, Va.

States Artillery I

Lidgerwood Mfg. Co

Hoisting Engines

96 Liberty St., New York,
N. Y.

.5.

Lord Baltimore Press, The
National Review The .

Printers and Bookbinders Greenmount Ave. & Oliver

St., Baltimore, Md.

....20

Magazine •>"-• TT.'ftVi a, to ivfo«, v„,i.

Navy League of the
United States

725 Soutbern Bldg., Wash-
ington, D. C.

Navy Publishing Co., The.
R

Magazine

518 Southern Bldg., Wash-
ington, D. C.

• •■ 23i

Roelker.H. B

The Allen Dense Air Ice Machine. 41 Maiden Lane, New York

....19

Schrader's Son, Inc., A...

783-791 Atlantic Ave., Brook-
lyn, N. Y.

....21

BOOKS

PUBLISHED BY THE U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE

U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings, Annapolis, Maryland.

Published monthly. Annual subscription to the Proceedings for non-
members, $3.00; s'ingle copies, 30 cents for monthly, 50 cents for
bi-monthly and quarterly Proceedings. Foreign postage SO cents.

Members or subscribers desiring to receive their copies of the Pro-
ceedings bound in cloth may do so by the payment of $3.50 per year
in addition to their dues or subscription, of which 50 cents is for
postage.

Members or subscribers desiring to have their copies of the Proceed-
ings bound in half Morocco may have the work done through the
Institute at a price of $1.50 per cover, postage or carriage additional.
The Proceedings of each year stripped and bound, make two con-
veniently sized volumes.

NAVIGATION
Navigation and Compass Deviations (Revised and Enlarged,
igii).

By Commander W. C. P. Muir, U. S. Navy, formerly Head of
Department of Navigation, U. S. Naval Academy. A practical treatise
on navigation and nautical astronomy, including the theory of compass
deviation, prepared for use as a text-book at the U. S. Naval Academy.
Though written primarily for use of midshipmen, the various subjects
have been so presented that any zealous student possessing but a slight
Jcnowledge of trigonometry may be able to master the methods given.

I^1no, yds 4- xvi pages, illustrated by diagrams and many text figures.
Price $4.20. Postage paid.

Elements of Hydrographic Surveying (igii).

By Lieut. Commander George Wood Logan, L^. S. N. All branches
of the work connected with a marine hydrographic survey as ordi-
narily carried out have been completely described, and the book is,
therefore, available for purposes of reference for naval officers and
others who may be engaged in such work.

i^mo, 176 pages, full cloth. Price $1.50. Postage paid.

A Practical Manual of the Compass (Revised, 1916),

The revision consists chiefl}' of the addition of a chapter on service
instruments and one on the gyroscopic compass. A valuable book for
navigators and officers preparing for promotion.

Originally prepared by Lieut. Commander Harris Laning, U. S. N.,
for the use of midshipmen to give them a sufficient knowledge of com-
pass work to enable them to efficiently care for and use compasses on

Publication of books marked with an asterisk (*) has been discontinued.
The Institute, however, holds copies which may be obtained until the present
edition becomes exhausted.

■ Catalogue of books published bj^ the Institute containing detailed
description and list of contents was published in the January number of
the Proceedings and may be obtained on application to the Secretary and
Treasurer, U. S. Naval Institute.

(2)

BOOKS—Continited

board ship. The complex mathematical theory of the deviation of
the compass and the derivation of formulae have been entirely omitted,
but a sufficient explanation of causes and effects is given to enable the
student to understand any ordinary problem that may arise. The book
contains all the most recent data on the subject of compensation of the
compass as well as copies of all the forms used in compass work with
an explanation of how to use them.

7 X loYz in., 146 pages. Bound in flexible cloth. Price $1.50. Post-
age paid.

Copies of first edition of this book on sale at 75 cents, postage paid.

MARINE ENGINEERING
Naval Reciprocating Engines and Auxiliary Machinery
(" Naval Engines and Machinery," Revised and En-
larged, I 9 14).

By Commander John K. Barton, U. S. Navy, Former Head of De-
partment of Marine Engineering and Naval Construction, U. S. Naval
Academy. Revised by Comdr. H. O. Stickney, U. S. Navy, recently
Head of Department of M. E. and N. C. U. S. Naval Academy.

A text-book for the instruction of Midshipmen and for officers pre-
paring for examination, fully illustrated with upwards of 260 text
figures, and 48 plates 8x10 inches bound separately.

8vo, 619 pages, full doth. Price $4.90. Postage paid.

Marine and Naval Boilers (191 5).

By Lieut. Commander Frank Lyon, U. S. N.. and Lieut. Commander
A. W. Hinds, U. S. N. Revised by Lieutenants W. P. Beehler and
John S. Barleon, IJ. S. Navy, of the Department of Marine Engineer-
ing and Naval Construction, U. S. Naval Academy, under the super-
vision of the Head of the Department.

This book was prepared in order to provide an up-to-date text-book
for the midshipmen at the U. S. Naval Academy. Plates and descrip-
tions include the most modern boiler installations on naval vessels.
The great gain in fuel economy made possible by»the combination of
gas analysis with intelligent firing is fully described. The causes of
boiler corrosion with the practical methods of its prevention are in-
cluded. A study of the book should furnish all the information neces-
sary for the efficient handling of a boiler plant. This book has been
revised to May, 1915.

The book is profusely illustrated by text figures and 16 folding plates.

8vo, 404 pages. Bound in full cloth. Price $3.25. Postage paid.

Steam Turbines.

A treatise covering U. S. Naval Practice. By Lieut. Comdr. G. J.
Meyers, U. S. Navy, of the Department of Marine Engineering and
Naval Construction, L^ S. Naval Academy.

This book covers turbine installations in the U. S. Navy with
chapters on the elementary principles of design and construction.
Especially adapted for use of midshipmen and officers of the navy
and for an elementary text-book in colleges and universities. It was
written to fill the want of a text-book more for the student and operat-
ing engineer than for the designer. Illustrated with 165 text figures.
9 plates II X40 inches showing half cross sections of the latest Curtis
and Parsons turbines.

Bound in full cloth. Price $4.50. (Subject to change.)
(3)

BOOKS— Continued

Experimental Engineering (191 1).

By Commander U. T. Holmes, U. S. Navy.

In attempting to revise the volume of " Notes on Experimental
Engineering," compiled by the author in 1907, so much new matter
was at hand, and so many changes were found necessary, that it was
deemed advisable to re-write the whole book.

The new book should be of great assistance to those officers who
wish to embrace the many opportunities to record valuable engineering
data and make proper deductions therefrom.

Sz'o, 311 pages, 152 illustrations, cloth. Price $2. IS. Postage paid.

Mechanical Processes (191 2),

Ry Lieut. G. W. Danford, U. S. Navy, Instructor in the Depart-
ment of Marine Engineering and Naval Construction, U. S. Xaval
Academy.

Giving an account of the materials used in engineering construction
and of the essential features in the methods of producing them, also
describing shop processes and equipment for the shaping of metals
into forms for engineering and general uses.

Effort has been made to present the subject matter in brief and
elementary form, with sufficient detail to outline methods and prin-
ciples clearly. It is intended to show completely, though briefly, the
steps of metal manufacture from the ore to the finished product, so
that the student may be enabled to classify all branches of metal
manufacture, and may pursue intelligently such study as will give
fuller information than is possible to include herein.

8vo, 421 pages, 270 illustrations, full cloth. Price $3.75. Postoi^c
paid.

Handy Book for Enlisted Men of the Engineer Department
(1915).

By Midshipman B. R. Ware, Jr., U. S. Navy.

A brief, practical aid for the men composing the engineer department
of a sea-going ship.

88 pages, flexible buckram cover. Price 40 cents. Postage paid.
The Institute does not publish this book but will supply it to
individuals as stated above.

-•^Internal Combustion Engines (1907).

By Commander John K. Barton, U. S. Navy, Head of Department
of Engineering and Naval Construction, U. S. Naval Academy.

An elementary treatise on gas, gasolene, and oil engines for the in-
struction of midshipmen. Well illustrated, clear and concise in style.
A convenient hand-book for officers desiring a good working knowl-
edge of the essential particulars of this class of engines.

8vo, 135 pages, 32 illustrations, cloth. Price $1.10. Postage paid.

*Engineering Mechanics (191 1),

A revision of " Notes on Machine Design," prepared by Officers of
the Department of Marine Engineering and Naval Construction, U. S.
Naval Academy, combined with the mathematics and general principles
necessary for the solution of the problems, by C. N. Offl.'ey. U. S. N.

8vo. 326 pages, 2 plates. Bound in full cloth. Price $3.25. Postage
paid.

BOOKS— Continued

*Mechanical Processes (1906).

By Commander (now Rear Admiral) John K. Barton, U. S. Nav}'.

A practical treatise on workshop appliances and their operation. The
operation of an engineering plant treated as a whole in a manner as
concise as is consistent with clearness. Its aim is to give as briefly as
possible all the information needed, avoiding all unnecessary matter.
Fully illustrated by 366 text figures and plates.

Svo, 356 pages, full cloth. Price $3.70, Postage paid.

*Notes on Steam Engineering (1901).

Arranged for the use of Officers of the Old Line of the Navy.
8vo, 154 pages. Bound in paper. Price 60 cents. Postage paid.

Compiled and edited by the Department of Marine Engineering and
Naval Construction, United States Naval Academy.

NAVAL CONSTRUCTION

Naval Construction (Revised and Enlarged, 1914).

By Naval Constructor R. H. M. Robinson, U. S. N. A modern
te.xt-book used in the course of naval architecture by midshipmen of
the first class, prepared with a' view to the special requirements of the
U. S. Naval Academy and based upon the practice of the U. S. Navy.

Sfo, 28s -\- I'll pages, illustrated by 162 figures and 5 plates. Price
$4.00. Postage paid.

*The Oscillations of Ships (1902).

Compiled and edited by the Depart
aval Construction, United States >;

Bound i>i flexible cloth. Price 55 cents. Postage paid.

OFFICIAL DRILL BOOKS FOR THE U. S. NAVY

AUTHORIZED BY THE NAVY DEPARTMENT

The Landing Force and Small-Arm Instructions (Revised,

1916).

The contents of this book are as follows: Part I. The Landing
Force, Camping, Military Hygiene, First Aid, Outposts and Patrols,
Scouting, Marches, Advance and Rear Guards, Formations for Street
Riots, Wall Scaling, Field Fortifications. — Part IL Manual of Guard
Duty, Guard Mounting.— Part IIL Extended Order. — Part IV. Drill
Regulations for Artillery, Artillery in the Field. — Part V. Firing
Regulations for Small-Arms. — Part VI. Infantry Drill Regulations
(Close Order).

Fully illustrated. Bound in cloth, price $1.00; full Aexible leather
binding, zvith pocket and tuck, price $1.50. Postage paid.

The Deck and Boat Book of the U. S. Navy, 1914 (Corrected

to Jan. I, 1916).

The Deck and Boat Book is issued for use on the ship's bridge.
No boat expedition shouM ever be without one for each boat and the
means of making signals. As far as practicable all boats away from
their ships on any duty where signal communication may be desirable
should have a copy. Coxswains as well as signal men should be
thoroughly familiar with its contents.

184 pages and S Hag plates in four colors. Price 45 cents, fabrikoid.
(5)

BOOKS— Continued

Ship and Gun Drills, U. S. Navy, 1914 (reprinted 1916).

This drill book is designed to cover, so far as practicable, all drills
and exercises which are carried out exclusivel}' on board ship.
Illustrated. Cloth binding, price 45 cents. Postage paid.

SEAMANSHIP
The Recruit's Handy Book, U. S. Navy (Revised, September,
1913)-

B}' Captain W. F. P^ullani, U. S. Navy. A most useful primer for
the Naval Recruit. It shows him what the nav}- offers him in the way
of a career, and it contains instruction in the rudiments of a seaman's
profession.

102 pages, flc.vible buckram cover. Price 20 cents, postpaid.

Bluejacket's Manual, U. S. Navy (Fourth edition, revised,
1916).

"The Bluejacket's Manual," originally prepared in 1902 by Lieu-
tenant Ridley McLean, U. S. Navy, and now revised to correspond
with the provisions of General Order No. 63 of December 16, 1913,
is issued to the service for the guidance and the instruction of petty
officers and enlisted men. In accordance with General Order No. 6^,
the Manual is divided into the following parts :

Part I. — The .Subjects which Every Man on Board Ship Should
Know.

Part 11. — The Subjects which Ordinary Seamen Should Know.

Part III. — The Subjects which the Higher Ratings of the Seaman
Branch Should Know.

Part IV.— The Subjects which Chief Petty Officers Should Know.

Part V. — The Subjects which Men of Special Ratings Should Know.

Stiff Buckram. Price 75 cents, prepaid.

"A Battleship's Order Book.

A Battleship's Order Book OgoS). by Lieut. Commander A. B.
Hoff, U. S. N.. follows the generally accepted ideas and regulations of
the service and the Atlantic Fleet in regard to liberty, uniform, punish-
ments, routine, etc.

i2mo, g6 pages te.vt, g6 pages blank, full cloth. Price 85 cents.
Postage paid.

'•'Hints for Junior Officers Doing Line Duty (1909).

Lieutenant B. B. Wygant, LT. S. Navy.

26 pages, paper cover. Price 15 cents. Postage paid.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Manual of Wireless Telegraphy for the Use of Naval Elec-
tricians (Revised and Enlarged, 1915).

By Commander S. S. Robison, U. S. Navy, with revisions and addi-
tions by L. W. Austin, Ph. D.. Navy Department, Bureau of Equipment,
and W'm. S. Cowles, Chief of Bureau.

Svo, ?JO pai^es te.yt, illustrated by J?n figures. Bound in full zvhite-
canvas. Price $1.50. Postage paid.

(6)

BOOKS— Continued

Naval Electricians' Text-Book. 2 vols. (3d Edition, 1915.)

By Captain W. H. G. Bullard, U. S. Navy.

Volume I contains the theoretical study of the subject in general
and covers the principles involved in the construction of all direct-
current machines, instruments, devices and apparatus, with an en-
larged chapter of the principles of alternating currents and circuits.

Volume II deals with the purely practical part of the subject, and
contains descriptive matter of all generators, motors, motive power,
etc., with their different applications, with elementary and completed
wiring diagrams and sketches of connections including all means of
interior communications. This volume has been considerably enlarged
and furnishes practical information of much value.

Volume I contains about 8S0 pages and 250 illustrations. Volume II,
about 650 pages and 310 illustrations, bound in full cloth. Price $3.75
per volume (2 volumes $7.50), postpaid.

^Electrical Installations of the United States Navy (1907).

By Commander Burns T. Walling, U. S. Navy, and Julius Martin,
E. E., Master Electrician of the Equipment Department, Navy Yard,
New York.

A Manual of material, including its use, operation, inspection, care,
and management, and method of installion on board ship.

8vo, 648 pages, 300 illustrations, full cloth. Price $3.50. Postage
paid.

ORDNANCE
Naval Ordnance (a text-book of ordnance and gunnery).
Revised Edition, 191 5.

By Lieut. Commander Roland I. Curtin and Lieut. Commander
Thomas L. Johnson, U. S. Navy.

This book has been adopted as a text-book at the U. S. Naval
Academy.

8vo, 383 pages, 57 illustrations, bound in full cloth. Price $4,85,
postage paid.

The Groundwork of Practical Naval Gunnery, or, Exterior

Ballistics.

By Philip R. Alger, Professor U. S. Navy. Revised and extended to
include the formulae and methods of Colonel James AI. Ingalls, U. S.
Army, by the officers on duty in the Department of Ordnance and
Gunnery, LI. S. Naval Academy,.

6y2X I0}i in., 360 pages, bound in full cloth. Price $6.25, postpaid.

Range and Ballistic Tables (1914).

To be used with Exterior Ballistics.

Reprinted or the use of the Midshipmen of the Naval Academy in
connection with their course of study in exterior ballistics.. They
permit problems to be given covering nearly ail tlie guns in most fre-
quent use in the navy at the present time.

12 .V gy2 in,, (oblong quarto), 93 pages. Bound in full cloth. Four
marginal tMmb indexes. Price $3.15, postpaid.

<7)

BOOKS— Continued

*Ordnance and Gunnery (igio).

Revised by officers of the U. S. Navy, under the supervision of the
Head of the Department of Ordnance and Gunnery of the Naval
Academy. The main purpose has been to illustrate fundamental
principles and general types, upon the belief that such a course will be
productive of better results than imparting a superficial knoM'ledge of
many types.

Svo, .V ^ 430 pages and illusfratioiis. hound in full cloth. Price
$4.25. Postage paid.

*A Text-Book of Ordnance and Gunnery (Revised Edition,
1905)-

By Lieut. Cornmander W. F. Fullam and Lieutenant T. C. Hart,
U. S. Navy. This book is a complete work on the subject of Ordnance
and Gunnery. The turret mounts and types of guns, etc., adopted by
the Navy Department up to the last date of revision appear in this
edition.

Svo, II -p over 300 pages, bound in. full cloth. Price $4.35. Postage
paid.

INTERNATIONAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
A Manual of International Law for the use of Naval Officers
(1911).

By Rear Admiral C. H. Stockton, U. S. N.. Retired. Sometime
Lecturer upon International Law at the Naval War College, author of
" The Laws and Usages of War at Sea : a Naval War Code."

The aim of this work is to present sound and authoritative informa-
tion based on the historical and accepted policy of our government, as
well as the best and most recent European views upon matters of in-
ternational law.

i2mo, 313 pages, cloth. Price $1.50. Postage paid.

Constitutional Law (1914),

By H. J. Fenton, M. A., L. B., Instructor, U. S. Naval Academy.
An introductory treatise designed for use in the United States Naval
Academy and in other schools where the principles of the Constitution
of the United States are studied.

A study of the text of the Constitution and the principles of law
pertaining to it. An abstract of the leading and most interesting
Supreme Court cases bearing on the Constitution is printed in Chapter
IX and serves to fix the principles of the Constitution clearly in mind.

I2V10, 267 pages, cloth. Price $1.35. Postage paid.

*Notes on International Law (1904).

By Lieut. C. P. Eaton, V. S. N., member of the New Jersey Bar.
This book consists of questions which have been asked on examination
of Line Officers of the U. S. Navy, with their answers ; others arranged
so as to laring out the subjects more fully, with answers, together with
Situations and Solutions propounded and solved at the U. S. Naval
War College. The form of " Questions and Answers " is a very con-
venient one in many ways.

Svo, 139 pages, bound in Hcvihle cloth. Price $1.10. Postage paid.

BOOKS— Continued

STRATEGY AND TACTICS

School of the Ship, etc. (igio).

By Rear Admiral A. W. Grant, U. S. N. (This book is being revised.
Its issue has been delayed indefinitely.)

'•'The Genius of Naval Warfare. I. Strategy.

By Commander Rene Daveluy, French Navy. Translated by Philip
R. Alger, U. S. N.

Svo, 298 + viii pages, cloth. Price $1.40. Postage paid.

"The Genius of Naval Warfare. II. Tactics.

By Commander Rene Daveluy, French Navv. Translated bv Philip
R. Alger, U. S. N.

Svo, 104 + znii pages, cloth. Price $1.10. Postage paid.

*War on the Sea.

By Captain Gabriel Darrieus, French Navy. Translated bv Philip
R. Alger, U. S. N.

An exposition of the basic principles of naval strategy and tactics
by the Professor of Strategy and Tactics at the French Naval War
College.

Cloth. $1.65. Postage paid.

*The Fundamentals of Naval Tactics.

By Lieutenant Romeo Bernotti, Royal Italian Navy. Translated
by Lieutenant H. P. Mcintosh, U. S. Navy.

i2mo, 184 pages, bound in cloth. Price $1.10. Postage paid.

Naval War College Pamphlets.

The Estimate of the Situation.
The Formulation of Orders.

Paper covers. Price IS cents each.

By Commander Carlo B. Brittain, U. S. Navy, Head of Department
of Seamanship, United States Naval Academy.

'•'Elements of Naval Warfare (1909)

By Commander Carlo B. Brittain. U.
Seamanship, United States Naval A(

i2mo, 124 pages, bound in cloth. Price $1.10. Postage paid.

LANGUAGES
A French Nautical Phrase Book and Reader (1914).

By the Department of Modern Languages, U. S. Naval Academy.

Part I of this work is based on "Nautical Phraseology" (ipn)
embracing such changes in text and arrangement as experience in its
use, and comment from the service at large, have indicated. Part II,
the " Nautical Reader," is the outcome of an effort to teach the mid-
shipmen ordinary naval words and expressions by the usual means of
instruction.

unto, 97 pages, cloth binding. Price 7S cents, postpaid.

(9)

BOOKS—Conlintted

A Spanish Nautical Phrase Book and Reader (1914).

By the Department of Modern Languages, U. S. Naval Academy.

Part I of this work is based on "Nautical Phraseology" (1911)
embracing such changes in text and arrangement as experience in its
use, and comment from the service at large, have indicated. Part II,
the " Nautical Reader." is the outcome of an efifort to teach the mid-
shipmen ordinary naval works and expressions by the usual means of
instruction.

I2V10, gf, pages, cloth binding. Price 75 cciils, postpaid.

=^=Nautical Phraseology (191 1).

By the Department of Modern Languages, U. S. Naval Academy.

This book is published for the use of the midshipmen of the first
class at the U. S. Naval Academy. It contains examples of social
correspondence in English, French, Spanish, and German, conversa-
tions on subjects most frequently required in international naval
intercourse, a table of corresponding ranks of officers of the United
States, French, Spanish, German, and British navies, and a well
selected professional vocabulary of about three hundred words.
Although German is not a part of the course at the Naval Academy,
the German text was available and was inserted with the idea that it
might be useful to the midshipmen after graduation. This book is
especially recommended for the use of midshipmen preparing for
final examination.

i2mo, in pages, cloth binding. Price 80 cents. Postage paid.

MATHEMATICS

Trigonometry and Stereographic Projections (Revised, 1913).

By Professor S. J. Brown, V. S. N. Prepared for the use of mid-
shipmen and adopted as a text-book.

(S'^K), 13s pages, cloth binding. Price $1.35. Postage paid.

Mechanics (1913).

By Professor H. E. Smith, U. S. N. Prepared for the use of mid-
shipmen and adopted as the text-book at the Naval Academy.

isino. xi 4- 26Q pages, cloth binding. Price $3.60., .postage paid.

■'•■ y- v>'A \-
Practical Algebra.

By Professor S. J. Brown, U. S. N., and Instructor Paul Capron,
U. S. N. A. Used as a text-book by the midshipmen at the Naval
Academy.

unto, i.i- -f igr pages, cloth binding. Price $1.45. Postage paid.

Calculus.

By Professor S. J. Brown, U. S. N., and Instructor Paul Capron,
V. S. N. A. Used as a text-book at the Naval Academy.

isino, i.v -\- jS8 pages, cloth binding. Price $3.35. Postage paid.

(10)

BOOKS— CZnfuutcd '"

MISCELLANEOUS j

Physiology, First Aid and Naval Hygiene (191 6).

By Doctor R. G. Heiner, U. S. Navy. A text-book for the Depart-
ment of Naval Hygiene and Physiology at the U. S. Naval Academy,
Annapolis, Md. •

1 This book should be made available for the use of all officers and

I enlisted men. It is highly recommended to Divisional Officers to be
! used in the general instruction of their men.

\ i2mo, 139 pages. Bound in full cloth, price $1.00. Postage- puid.

fU. S. Navy Cook Book (1908).

Prepared by the direction of the Bureau of Navigation at the School
for Cooks and Bakers, U. S. Navy Training Station, Newport, Rhode
Island. All the methods and recipes given have been tried with suc-
cess at the Cooking School.

62 pages, Acxible library duck. Price 25 cents. Postage paid.

Illustrated Case Inscriptions from the Official Catalogue of the

Trophy Flags of the United States Navy.

By Instructor H. C. Washburn, U. S. N. A. This is a book that
officers in the service will be glad to own and keep at hand as an object:
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V^ol. 43, No. 2

February 1917

Whole No. 168

United States
Naval Institute

Proceedings

PUBLISHED MONTHLY
EDITED BY J. W. GREENSLADE

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE
ANNAPOLIS '^'^—t:: MARYLAND

By J. W. CONROY

TRUSTEE FOR U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE

C^e £or& Qgftfttmere (pre««

BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.

The writers only are responsible for the contents of their respective articles

CONTENTS

The Log of the "Constitution," Feb. 21-J4, 1815. The Capture
of the Cyane and the Levant. By Naval Constructor C. W.
Fisher, U. S. Navy 227

Some Strategical Sketches. By Professor William Hovgaard, Late
Commander, Royal Danish Navy 2.^3

Logistics — Its Influence upon the Conduct of War and Its Bear-
ing UPON the Formulation of War Plans. By Captain H. P.
Huse, U. S. Navy 245

"Ayesha" (Concluded). By Lieutenant Hellmuth von Miicke,
Imperial German Navy. Translated by Lieutenant J. H. Klein, Jr.,
U. S. Navy 255

A Combined Army and Navy War College. By Colonel Wm. W.

Harts, U. S. Army 287

A Plea for Universal Service. By Lieut. Commander John P. Jack-
son, U. S. Navy ,. 295

Our Navy and the West Indian Pirates (Continued). A Docu-
mentary History. By Rear Admiral Caspar F. Goodrich, \j. S.
Navy 313

The Upper Yangtse River. By Lieutenant A. F. Carter. U. S. Navy. . 325

Secretary's Notes 365

Report of Audit for the Year Ended December 30, 191 6 371

Professional Notes 377

International Notes : Naval War Notes 407

International Notes : Diplomatic Notes 412

Review of Books 425

Information Index : 369

OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTE

I President

Rear Admiral BRADLEY A. FISKE, U. S. Xavv

Vice-President
Captain E. W. EBERLE, U. S. Navy

Secretary and Treasurer
Lieut. Commander J. W. GREENSLADE, U. S. Navv

Board of Control

Chief Constructor D. W. TAYLOR, U. S. Navy

Brigadier General JOHN A. LEJEUNE, U. S. Marine Corps

Captain L. M. NULTON, U. S. Navy

Commander W. T. CLUVERIUS, U. S. Navy

Lieut. Commander JOHN HALLIGAN, U. S. Navv

Lieutenant BYRON McCANDLESS, U. S. Navy

Lieut. Commander J. W. GREENSLADE, U. S. Navy (ex ofUcio)

PAST PRESIDENTS

OF THE

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE

Admiral DAVID D. PORTER, U. S. Navy, 1873

Rear Admiral JOHN L. WORDEN, U. S. Navy, 1874

Rear Admiral C R. P. RODGERS, U. S. Navy, Jan. 1875-jAN. 1878

Commodore FOXHALL A. PARKER, U. S. Navy, Jan. 1878-jAN. 1879

Rear Admiral JOHN RODGERS, U. S. Navy, Jan. 1879-jAN. 1882

Rear Admiral C R. P. RODGERS, U. S. Navy, Jan. 1882-jAN. 1883

Rear Admiral THORNTON A. JENKINS, U. S. Navy, Jan. 1883-OcT.

1885
Rear Admiral EDWARD SIMPSON, U. S. Navy, Oct. 1885-OcT. 1887
Rear Admiral STEPHEN B. LUCE, U. S. Navy, Oct. 1887-OcT. 1898
Rear Admiral WM. T. SAMPSON, U. S. Navy, Oct. 1898-OcT. 1902
Rear Admiral H. C. TAYLOR, U. S. Navy, Oct. 1902-OcT. 1904
Rear Admiral C F. GOODRICH, U. S. Navy, Oct. 1904-OcT. 1909

Rear Admiral RICHARD WAINWRIGHT, U. S. Navy, Oct. 1909-OcT.
IQII

UNITED STATES
NAVAL INSTITUTE

PROCEEDINGS

Vol. 43, No. 2 FEBRUARY, 1917 Whole No. 168

[copyrighted]

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.

THE LOG OF THE CONSTITUTION, FEB. 21-24, 1815
THE CAPTURE OF THE CYANE AND THE LEVANT
By Naval Constructor C. W. Fisher, U. S. Navy

Enclosed herewith is a blueprint of an extract from the log
of the U. S. frigate Constitution, dated February 21 to February
24, 181 5. This brief extract includes a description of the action
between the Constitution and the British vessels Cyane and Levant.
As an example of most admirable seamanship, excellent control,
fine tactics, and a happy as well as forceful style of recording
important events, I consider this brief extract to be of sufficient
value to warrant its being published for the " information and
guidance " of the navy to-day. It would be hard to find a better
model than this modest record of a most unusual and courageous
action.*

^ Extract from letter transmitting the copies of the Constitution's log
sheets.

230

The Log of tpie " Constitution "

>-'H'^^^^^"^'=K^^^^<H^-^V,^t>.Cift^-^ >. ev.

The Log of the " Constitution "

231

l^!\.

Htl

ili1io

<i_

I ^

t^^-^:^

«»'^i..;a; ^'•^'3<^

;,i^ «. ^ ^ :*; %o

^32

The Log of the " Constitu'j

I iitkt

^M^ilkuM

■*^

^"t

»i',^

[copyrighted]

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.

SOME STRATEGICAL SKETCHES •

By Professor William Hovgaard, Late Commander,
Royal Danish Navy

At a time when the United States Navy appears to stand on the
threshold of a great enlargement, and problems of the general
constitution of the fleet, as well as the choice of types of vessels
most suitable to the service, press for immediate solution, it may
not be without interest to make a speculative study of the stra-
tegic conditions under which the navy is likely to be used in time
of war. Essays on strategy are mostly of a general nature,
and rarely embody the consideration of concrete cases, except
as required to illustrate principles. It may perhaps by some be
considered inappropriate to assume and discuss a state of war
between countries actually at peace and unlikely to enter into
conflict, but it is obviously impossible to form a clear idea of the
problems that the navy of a given country has to solve without
making definite assumptions as to the enemies with whom the
country may be involved in war. All cases that are reasonably
possible must be considered, and too much weight must not be
attached to the political conditions existing at the moment. In
these days, where kaleidoscopic changes are apt to take place in
international relations, the naval defences can be safely planned
only on the broad basis of past history. This is the more neces-
sary as naval development, in order to be economic and sound,
must follow a well-matured programme, extending over a number
of years, during which political relations may undergo great
changes.

Strategic problems based on concrete cases of warfare are
indeed worked out by admiralty staffs or other similar institu-
tions in all navies, but the result of such studies must for obvious
reasons remain buried in the archives. Yet. if the general public

234 Some Strategical Sketches

of a country is to judge intelligently of the requirements of the
navy and the coast defences, it must be informed as to the prob-
able course of events in wartime. Many fictitious war stories
have appeared in the press and in the literature, but they are
almost invariably of a popular nature, and often so exaggerated
that they fail to impress serious people with the importance of
the questions involved. In the present article it is attempted to
give a sober although brief and sketchy presentation of the sub-
ject, which may serve as a suggestion for a more complete and
detailed study.

It may be argued that the European War gives the best and
most positive information on which to base a naval programme, but
the strategic conditions of the European belligerents dififer so
much from those that would exist in a war between the United
States and other countries, that the experiences of the European
War cannot be applied directly. A study must first be made of
the form which naval wars are likely to take when this country
is involved.

The assumption as to the state of war must comprise the most
typical and important of possible contingencies — not necessarily
those that are most probable. They should be simple, unessential
complications being avoided, but they must cover both defensive
and ofifensive cases of warfare. On these general principles the
assumed conditions are selected in the following. Other and
more complex cases could be easily conceived and the courses
of events might difiFer considerably from those here assumed, but
the requirements to the navy would remain the same or would
fall within those determined on the basis of the most important
cases of warfare.

The pictures here drawn of the events are necessarily incom-
plete, since it is futile to carry the speculation beyond the first
stages of the war, when numerous possibilities, largely of an
accidental nature, present themselves and increase the complexity
of the problem. The present study, however, in virtue of its con-
crete nature, brings out sharply the principal requirements of
the United States Navy, and it gives indications as to the rela-
tive importance of the various types of warships as well as their
general features. It also shows the urgent necessity of reinforc-
ing the mobile defences of all outlying possessions, in particular
those of the Panama Canal.

Some Strategical Sketches 235

We shall assume the status of the naval and military defences
of the United States and of the other supposed belligerents to be
essentially as at the present time, disregarding the actually existing
state of war.

I. Tke United States at War with England

The issue of such a war would probably be determined on
shore ; namely, on the North American Continent. Presumably
the English main attack would take the form of an invasion
across the Canadian border, and perhaps landing expeditions
would be attempted at points of the East Coast. The primary
duty of the British Navy would be to protect the lines of com-
munication across the Atlantic. At the same time the British
maritime trade would have to be safeguarded and that of the
United States hindered or paralyzed. All these objects would
be attained by clearing the sea of raiding vessels, and by an effec-
tive blockade of the American coasts ; but these tasks present
peculiar difficulties which it is necessary to consider in detail.

The coast-line of the United States is not only very extensive,
but is divided into three distinct sections, the Atlantic, the Gulf,
and the Pacific coasts, facing strategic areas, each of which would
have to be kept under separate surveillance. Numerous naval
stations, navy yards, and commercial harbors are found scattered
along these coasts, and the problem of blockading is further com-
plicated by the existence of insular possessions and the Panama
Canal. England possesses, indeed, several advanced bases rela-
tive to these coast-lines, and two of them, Halifax and Bermuda,
have an ideal location in front of the most important section of
the Atlantic Coast ; but other stations are less favorably situated
as bases for a blockading fleet (Jamaica, Vancouver), while
some are too weak or too limited in harbor facilities and resources
(Nassau).

Hence, although the enormous extent of the littoral of the
United States renders coast defence in a complete form practically
impossible, it, on the other hand, presents the compensating advan-
tage that an effective blockade is equally difficult to carry out.
The Atlantic Coast is in this respect much more favorably situated
than the German North Sea Coast in the present war. In the North
Sea the British Islands, dotted with excellent harbors and pro-
vided with all the resources needed bv a navv, extend as a barrier

236 Some Strategical Sketches

for about five hundred miles in front of and relatively close to the
German naval bases, which are penned up in a corner of this nar-
row sea, easy to watch and to blockade. In the war here con-
templated the conditions are practically the reverse, since the
blockading fleet must concentrate at one or two known points
confronting a coast-line extending for about fourteen hundred
miles. The blockading fleet, moreover, must depend for its con-
tinued efficiency largely on supplies from the mother country.

We assume that at or before the outbreak of the war a screen
of American light cruisers and destroyers, assisted by submarines
and aircraft and supported by armored cruisers in the rear,
would be thrown out in front of the Atlantic Coast ; but with the
existing outfit of cruisers, which are limited in number and most
of them of relatively slow speed, the screen would be incomplete
and weak, and could not safely be advanced to any great distance
from the coast. It would probably, soon after the opening of
hostilities, have to withdraw before the vastly superior forces of
the English screen. After that the English would presumably
attempt to establish a blockade of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts,
as well as of the Panama Canal, light vessels being stationed ofif
the shore outside harbors and estuaries, while battle cruisers
would patrol the sea at a greater distance from the coast and
the battle fleet would remain concentrated at Bermuda and Hali-
fax. The blockade would have a mixed character, being partly
" close " but essentially " open," and the American battle fleet
would have considerable freedom of action even if debarred
from operating at great distances from the coast. Probably it
would be perferred to maintain the fleet " in being " rather than
to risk a decisive action against superior forces. In fact, a vigor-
ous offensive defensive, based on sporadic action, would appear
very promising under the circumstances. Were such a policy
adopted, the American main fleet might with advantage be dis-
tributed between important naval stations on the Atlantic Coast,
while independent squadrons might be detailed to the defence of
the Gulf and the Pacific, since by such scattering of the forces,
the difficulties of maintaining an efifective blockade w^ould be
immensely increased for the English. Under these circumstances
complete concentration of the main fleet might not always be pos-
sible, and would be, in general, unnecessary, since a decisive fleet
action would be the one thing to avoid ; but partial condensation

^OME .Strategical m<etches 237

of the forces for the purpose of overwhehiiing minor portions of
the enemy fleet might frequently be effected, and thus good oppor-
tunities of inflicting serious losses on the enemy might occur.

The service of the blockading light vessels would probably be
exceedingly strenuous, since they would be exposed to incessant
and vigorous attacks from all classes of warships of the widely
scattered American fleet. Raiding vessels would have frequent
opportunities of breaking the blockade, being eventually sup-
ported in this act by the battleships, and when at large they could
prey upon British commerce and threaten the communication
between England and Canada, but the American Navy in its pres-
ent condition would not be able to make proper use of these oppor-
tunities on account of its weakness in scouting cruisers and its
total lack of battle cruisers. These deficiencies, in fact, would
greatly simplify the task of the enemy.

The American submarines would force the British battle fleet
to operate with caution and normally to remain in port in the
Bermudas and Halifax. If the United States were in possession
of a number of larger sea-going submarines, which could be sent
as far as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the summer routes through
Cabot Strait and the Strait of Belle Isle might be threatened.

Probably a belt near the Atlantic Coast would remain under the
control of American submarines and torpedo-craft, aided by mine
fields ; but it seerhs doubtful whether the coastwise trade could be
maintained. Waterways like the Cape Cod Canal would be of
extreme value under these circumstances.

As stated above, the blockade would probably from the begin-
ning of the war be extended to the ports on the Gulf Coast and in
the Caribbean Sea. Guantanamo and the other American sta-
tions on the West Indian Islands, being practically without
defences, would fall in the hands of the enemy, but the most
important objective in this region would be the Panama Canal.
Among all the detached strategic points belonging to the United
States, the canal stands supreme in importance as the connecting
link or bridge between the eastern and western strategic areas.
The defences of both terminals of the canal against attack from
the sea appear to be well provided for by coast fortifications, mines,
and submarines, but against serious land attack the mobile gar-
rison of the Canal Zone is entirely inadequate, consisting of a
few infantry regiments and a company of engineers. Being with-

238 Some Strategical Sketches

out connection with the United States by land and having- nc
independent technical military resources, the canal must depend
for its tenure entirely on the navy. In the war here under con-
sideration the English, being in command of the sea, could with-
out difficulty dispatch a strong expeditionary force to the Isthmus.
Landings might be effected in the vicinity of the Canal Zone on
the Caribbean side beyond the region that is under direct control
of the defences. Difficulties in the terrain might delay the opera-
tions, but the fall of the position would only be a question of time,
since the English could bring a practically unlimited pressure to
bear on it. A British squadron in the Pacific could prevent rein-
forcements from reaching the Canal Zone by way of Panama. If
the canal fell into the hands of the enemy in unimpaired condition,
the operations of the British fleet in the Pacific would be
immensely facilitated and the blockade would be at once extended
to the West Coast of the United States, if this step had not already
been taken. The canal would thus become a positive disadvantage
and a source of danger to the United States in the same measure
as it would be of strategic value to the enemy ; but it seems likely
that the garrison, before surrendering, would wreck the canal
for the probable duration of the war. This could be accom-
plished, for instance, by demolishing the Gatun Dam, or by
simply letting out the water of the Gatun Lake, whereby the
canal would be rendered useless for one or perhaps two years.
It might be found wise even to make the canal inoperative and to
evacuate the zone at once on the outbreak of hostilities, a procedure
that would be analogous to the destruction of important bridges
and the abandonment of untenable positions in land warfare.

Whether the English were able to make use of the canal or not,
it would be necessary for them ultimately to blockade the Pacific
Coast of the United States in order to protect their commerce :
but this blockade would be difficult to maintain, especially as
long as Pearl Llarbor and other stations in the Pacific v^-ere still
in the hands of the Americans, since the blockading vessels would
then be exposed to attack from the rear. For this reason and so
as to deprive raiders of all footholds; England w^ould have to
seize or blockade all these stations, none of which, with the excep-
tion of Pearl Harbor, could offer any serious resistance. In fact,
tlie outlying possessions would in this, as in all wars against a
])OA\er superior at sea, be a source of anxiety and weakness.

Some Strategical Sketches 239

We need not for our piirpose pursue the study further. It is
clear that the American battleships, distributed in different ports
on the extensive coast-lines and employed for energetic sporadic
action, would greatly complicate the task of the British Navy. It
seems evident, also, that in a war against an enemy, vulnerable
in his commerce and under the necessity of transporting great
armies across the ocean, battle cruisers, light cruisers, and sea-
going submarines would be of the highest value. Bearing in mind
the concern and embarrassment, which the small German East
Asiatic cruiser squadron caused to the British Admiralty in the
beginning of the present war, we can imagine what the result
would be in the war here contemplated, if the United States were
l^rovided with even a moderate outfit of raiding and scouting ves-
sels of the above mentioned classes.

2. The United States at War with Germany
We shall assume that the strength of the German fleet, after
deduction of the forces required for home defence, would be
somewhat superior to the American in battleships and overwhebn-
ingly stronger in cruisers and destroyers.

Since Germany does not possess any naval stations in the. Atlan-
tic that could be used as advanced bases in operations on the
coast of America, we suppose that the first preliminary objectiy.e
of the German Navy would be the seizure of one or more points
suitable for this purpose. The West Indies appear to offer the
best and perhaps the only opportunities for the acquisition of such
bases. Several excellent harbors and anchorages are found on
the islands such as St. Thomas, Samana Bay in Haiti, and others,
which the Gemians. apart from opposition of the American fleet,
could seize without encountering serious resistance.

We shall assume first that the Americans would seek a decision
before the German fleet had succeeded in establishing itself at
a base, and that the main battle would take place in the vicinity
of the West Indian waters after the American screen were driven
back in a series of minor actions. The result would depend first,
on the relative qualities and efficiency of the personnel in the two
fieets, which, in a theoretical study like the present, must be
assumed to be equal ; second, it would depend on the forces which
the Germans could spare for the undertaking and on the condition
of the fleet on its arrival in the West Indies, but apart from these

240 Some Strategical Sketches

uncertain elements the Americans would have a decided advantage
in the individual superiority of their battleships. Comparing
ships of the same date, and excepting the most recent of the Ger-
man ships, the data of which have not been published, the Ameri-
can ships are throughout of more rational design. They carrv-
more powerful guns, the batteries are better arranged, and they
possess, moreover, all the advantages that follow inherently from
larger displacement.

If the American fleet were victorious, the war would come to
a speedy end. If it were defeated, it would probably fall back
on Guantanamo or entirely withdraw from the West Indian waters
and the situation would thus be similar to that already discussed
in case of a war with England.

Let us consider the case where the American fleet, instead
of initially risking a decisive fleet action, followed a defensive
policy and took up a position in the West Indies, while the Ger-
man Fleet with its train seized a base in the Eastern Caribbean.
We assume that the American fleet, so long as no defences are
established on Culebra or St. Thomas, would choose Guantanamo
Bay as a base, because it is singularly well situated as a flank
position, whatever be the ulterior objective of the enemy. In fact,
the Germans could not undertake any serious expeditions, whether
against the United States, Panama, or South America, so long as
the American fleet were unimpaired and free to make sorties
from that station. The first task of the Germans would therefore
necessarily be a close blockade of Guantanamo and attacks on the
place by landing parties. At the same time the German Navy
would have to prevent reinforcements from landing elsewhere on
the Island of Cuba. Guantanamo, with the existing weak-
defences, and unless it were in time provided with a strong mobile
garrison, could not make a prolonged resistance. The American
fleet, in order to avoid being destroyed in port like the Russian
fleet at Port Arthur, would soon be forced to come out for a
decisive battle, the possibilities of which have already been dis-
cussed.

If the United States fleet were defeated and for the time bein^'
incapable of serious action, the American harbors would be
blockaded and the Panama Canal attacked with the probable
result that it would be rendered useless.

Some Strategical Sketches 241

We shall not attempt to discuss in detail the further operations
or ultimate objective of the Germans, but the sea would now be
clear for the transportation of large expeditionary forces or
armies across the Atlantic, whether for the purpose of securing
the acquisition of new colonial possessions or for invading the
United States.

Whatever the outcome of such a war, it is seen that, again, the
issue would depend essentially on the battleships, while battle
cruisers and fast light cruisers would be urgently needed by the
United States Navy for disturbing the passage of the enemy's
oversea expeditions and his communications. Battle cruisers
would be useful also in fleet action, provided they are designed
wnth this purpose in view.

3. The United States at War with Japak

The United States Navy would in this case be decidedly superior
to that of the enemy in battleships, but would lack the element of
speed which the Japanese Navy possesses in a squadron of battle
cruisers. The Japanese Navy would be somewhat stronger also
in older armored cruisers and scouts.

Strategically, such a war would dififer markedly from those so
far discussed in virtue of the enormous distances that separate
the main bases of the two countries. The Panama Canal would
again be of the utmost strategic value to the United States, and
Pearl Harbor would form an excellent base in the Pacific, but,
being about 3400 miles distant from Japan, it could serve only as
an intermediate station in offensive operations against that coun-
try. The Philippine Islands are in this respect more favorably
situated, but are yet too remote from Japan to serve as an
advanced base for a blockading fleet, Manila being about 1300
miles from the southern Japanese islands. Japan, moreover,
flanks the line of communication between the Philippines and
Hawaii, which line is about 5000 miles in length.

Guam Island, which is about 1700 miles nearer to Hawaii and
Panama than is Manila, and which is no farther from Japan, is
at present merely a coahng station, practically without any
defences. Yet, this little island, of form and size as the extreme
half end of the Gallipoli Peninsula, is much easier to defend than
stations which, like Manila, are situated on larger islands where
landings are more difiicult to prevent. It has a commodious

242 So.Mii Strategical Sketches

natural harbor which with proper improvements can be rendered
serviceable for a large fleet. If the United States is to maintain
a strategic position in the East, a strong naval base at Guam
appears to be indispensable. In the hands of Japan it would abso-
lutely destroy the security of the line of communication with the
Philippines.

As matters stand, the United States is without a base in the
Pacific suitable for offensive operations against Japan, and it
does not seem likely, therefore, that the American fleet at the
opening of hostilities would be advanced beyond Hawaii. Pos-
sibly a minor squadron would be detached to the Philippines and
we shall suppose these islands to be garrisoned as at present,
with some 13,000 United States troops.

We assume further that the Japanese, eventually using the
naval station Takow, on Formosa, as an advanced base, would
open the war with a surprise attack on the Philippine Islands.
The American squadron would be blockaded or destroyed by a
superior Japanese fleet and an army would be landed. The posi-
tions at ^Manila and Olongapo would fall and all important
strategic ])oints on the islands would be occupied. Guam would
be captured. These operations would probably be completed
before succor could be rendered, and once the Japanese were
firmly established, they could not be driven out of the islands till
after their fleet was defeated or closely blockaded and the sea
cleared of their cruisers ; but this task the American fleet, as now
constituted, could hardly hope to accomplish under the given dis-
advantageous strategic conditions.

Having thus secured control of the western part of the Pacific,
Japan would presumably follow a defensive policy, the battle fleet
being kept in home waters for protection of the coasts and engage-
ments with superior forces of the enemy being avoided. The
older cruisers might be detailed for protection of commerce in
Asiatic w^aters and the fast modern cruisers, including the battle
cruisers, might carry out raiding operations in the eastern part of
the Pacific, threatening in particular the communications of
Hawaii. Eventually, important points in Alaska would be seized.

It is difficult to see how under these circumstances the Ameri-
can fleet could force the Japanese to a decision against their will.
Ofl"ensive operations of importance could not be undertaken in
these (la}-s of submarine dangers without the possession of an

Some Strategical Sketches 243

advanced base in the vicinity of the enemy's coast ; but no such
base is known to be available near the littoral of the Japanese
islands. Even if a suitable base were secured, the weakness of
the American Navy in cruisers and flotillas would render blockad-
ing operations inefifective and would jeopardize the vitality of
the fleet, because it would be impossible to protect the extensive
line of communications.

It is likely, therefore, that the American main fleet would remain
at Hawaii, where it would be strategically in the best position for
protecting- the Pacific Coast and the canal, at the same time pre-
venting the Hawaiian Islands from falling into the hands of the
enemy. In fact, serious attacks by the Japanese fleet on points
on the American Continent or on Hawaii would hardly be
attempted, and the Japanese would probably be content to seek
opportunities of overwhelming weaker divisions of the American
fleet. The war would be essentially a cruiser war, in which the
Japanese Avould have the advantage of a more modern and power-
ful materiel, but by using battleships as convoys the American
Navy should be able to protect its lines of communication in the
Eastern Pacific.

In order that the United States should be capable of carrying-
out an oft'ensive war against Japan with an}' chance of success,
it would need to possess a suitable advanced base and a fleet
decidedly superior to that of the Japanese in all the various classes
of warships. On account of the vastness of the Pacific Ocean, the
ships of all classes must be endowed with the highest sea-going
cjualities and steaming capability, and since they must also possess
at least the same military qualities as ships of the same class in
other navies, they must be of very large size.

4. The United States at War with Germany and Japan

If Germany and Japan were acting together as allies against
the United States, the balance of naval power would be strongly
in their favor. Yet, their added naval strength would fall far
short of that of Great Britain, and they would not, like that power,
be in possession of suitable advanced bases. Their forces would
be — at least initially — divided.

Let us first assume that the American fleet were concentrated
in the Atlantic, leaving the Pacific Coast to depend on local
defences, consisting chiefly of destroyers, submarines, mines, and

244 Some Strategical Sketches

fortitications. In such a case the situation in the Atlantic would
be as in a war with Germany alone, but the Panama Canal would
probably fall into the hands of the Japanese, since the American
fleet could not be detailed to its defence without leaving the
Atlantic seaboard open to attack, and a Japanese army could be
landed at the Pacific end of the canal. All the outlying possessions
in the Pacific, including Alaska and the Hawaiian Islands, would
be untenable with the present means of defence, and Pearl Harbor
would be liable to sufifer a fate similar to that of Kiao-chau in the
present war.

If the United States fleet succeeded in defeating the German
fleet, it would perhaps later, after a period of recuperation, be able
to clear the Pacific Coast of the Japanese ; but if it suffered a
reverse, both seaboards would be open to attack and invasion.

Instead of seeking a decision in a great battle, a more cautious,
defensive policy, as explained in case of a war with England,
based on sporadic action with a scattered distribution of the fleet
on both coasts might be preferred.

It is seen that the fleet of the United States, in order to derive
full benefit from the favorable strategic situation existing at the
beginning of such a war due to the division of the allied forces,
must be capable of defeating each of the opponents singly with a
good margin of strength, and the defences of the Panama Canal
must be such as to render it absolutely secure against attack by
sea or land.

[copyrighted]

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.

LOGISTICS— ITS INFLUENCE UPON THE CONDUCT

OF WAR AND ITS BEARING UPON THE

FORMULATION OF WAR PLANS

By Captain H. P. Huse, U. S. Navy

Strategy in its widest meaning includes logistics and tactics, but
it is convenient to consider logistics and tactics as integral branches
of the art of war, and the province of each must be understood and
clearly defined before the work of the staff can be properly coordi-
nated. To this end strategy is limited to planning and directing,
while logistics provides the means and executes. Strategy, for
instance, decides that we need a certain force in the Pacific and
prescribes its character, disposition, and employment. Logistics
provides this force, maintains it and places it, all in accordance
with the demands of strategy. Tactics covers the movements and
operations of the forces while in contact with the enemy.

All the activities of the navy come under one of these three heads,
but strategy and tactics are so closely connected that in a dis-
cussion of logistics it is not necessary to differentiate between the
former two. We will therefore consider only the two titles,
strategy and logistics, and distribute the activities of the navy
between these, leaving tactics and the line which divides it from
strategy to a later paper.

Naval strategy includes the following :

(a) The number of vessels of each' type required and their

characteristics.

(b) Location of naval bases and repair stations and their

capabilities.

(d) Organization of the forces.

(e) Operations and movements of forces in the execution of

policy in peace and war.

(f) Operations and movements of forces for the purpose of

exercise and test, as in war games.

246 Logistics

Naval logistics includes the following, all to be performed in
accordance with the requirements of strategy:

(a- 1) Planning, constructing and maintaining the fleet.

( b-i ) Fortifying, developing and maintaining naval bases and

stations.
( c-i ) Enlisting, maintaining, educating, training and drilling

personnel. This includes target practice,
(d-i ) Providing, storing, and delivering supplies of all kinds,
including ordnance, ammunition, fuel, clothing, pro-
visions, etc.
(e-i) Transporting personnel and materiel; care of ill and
wounded.
When we began a few years ago to build up our navy, it is hardly
an exaggeration to say that the question of materiel occupied the
attention of the leading minds of the service almost to the exclusion
of all thought of the personnel. This was only natural, for the
personnel seemed to be at hand, ready to be developed w-hen the
materiel should have been supplied. But, as a result of this point
of view, the materiel has developed faster than the personnel, and
we are now suffering not only from the direct effects as shown in a
shortage of officers and men, but indirectly in the difficulty we have
found in educating the public to a realization of the fact that it
requires as long to train a gunner as it does to build a gun, and
much longer to develop an officer than it does to build a ship. How-
ever, both materiel and personnel are now in a fair way to receive
due consideration, and the development of the personnel of the
individual ship has reached a high degree of efficiency. Logistics
has performed this part of the task very successfully. We may say
that the following items under logistics have been fairly well taken
care of :

(c-i) Enlisting, maintaining, educating, training and drilling-
personnel. '
( d-i ) Providing, storing, and delivering sup]:)lies of all kinds,
including ordnance, ammunition, fuel, clothing, pro-
visions, etc.
(e-i) Transporting personnel and materiel; care of sick and
wounded.
With items (a-i) and (b-i) it is different.

Item ( a-i ), planning, constructing and maintaining tJie fleet, has
received a great deal of attention, but the delays in planning and

Logistics 247

building- our ships, the frequent changes after construction, the
unsatisfactory condition of our submarines, and the inadequacy of
our aeronautical service, are clear indications that either the organi-
zation of this branch of logistics is defective or that the personnel
is inefficient. Now the general opinion of the service is that
the personnel involved is not inefficient, and we must therefore
attribute the trouble to defective organization.

Item (b-i), fortifying, developing and maintaining naval bases
and stations, has been the subject of much discussion in the service
and out of it, but so far as the writer knows, it has never reached
the stage where logistics could properly take it up. It is the busi-
ness of strategy to determine the location and capabilities of naval
bases and repair stations, just as it is the business of strategy to
determine the number of vessels of each type and their character-
istics. It is evident that in determining these questions, strategy
is limited by logistics and must therefore give full weight to logistic
considerations. Thus it might be desirable from strategic con-
siderations to have a naval base at a certain place, but difficulties
of construction or of fortification, or some other reason, might
make the location there impossible. The same is true of ships
where cost. ]irotection. armament, speed and radius of action are
conflicting qualities. Here again strategy (or tactics) determines
after receiving all possible information from logistics.

I do not purpose in this paper to discuss in detail th.„ methods
now followed at the Navy Department. That these are not thor-
oughly successful is shown in the paragraphs preceding. My pur-
pose is to take the department organization now in existence and
without changing it materially allot the various tasks in accordance
with more correct principles. It will be seen that nothing radical
is necessary in order to accomplish this, but a clear understanding
of certain ruling principles is essential. These may be formulated
as follows :

1. The diiTerence between strategy and logistics must be clearly

understood.

2. Tasks must be allotted among subordinates so that the task of

each subordinate shall be in itself homogeneous in char-
acter and logically within the scope of his capabilities.

3. Each subordinate to whom a task is allotted must be given the

authority and the means necessary to perform it.

4. The responsibihty for the performance of each task must be

undivided and personal.

248 Logistics

5. Superior authority having allotted a task to a subordinate
must not interfere with his performance thereof. Superior
authority must limit its activities to coordinating work and
to such inspections as will enable it to be thoroughly cog-
nizant of the progress and the result produced.

There is a theory of government based on the principle of " bal-
ance and check " where the liberties of the people are supposed to
be protected by balancing and checking the power of one branch
of the government by the power of another branch. We see this
in our Congress where the Senate and House, originally intended
to represent different interests, now merely serve the purpose of
holding each other in check ; the veto power of the Executive is
another example ; while the Supreme Court in declaring laws un-
constitutional has frequently checked both Congress and the Execu-
tive. But, however svtch a system may make for " safety first " with
regard to the liberties of the people, it certainly does not make for
progress, and there is a tendency in our day to sacrifice " balance
and check " in exchange for greater efficiency. Curtailing the
power of the British House of Lords is a case in point.

We see this same system resorted to in party politics, and even
sometimes in society, where one faction is played ofif against
another by leaders who thus seek to retain control by holding the
balance of power.

But what should we think of a business corporation in which
any of the energies of one department should be expended in neu-
tralizing the energies of another? The answer is simple : the com-
petition of more ably conducted corporations would soon drive it
out of business and it would cease to exist.

At the Navy Department we have an all-powerful head to whom
strategy and logistics are as unfamiliar as are statesmanship and
finance to a naval officer. He is appointed to the office as an
exponent of the policy of the administration, and as such it is
logical and correct that the expert officers directing the strategy
and logistics of the navy should be under his orders and responsible
to him ; but it is neither logical nor correct that he should direct
any details of these highly technical divisions.

The navy list shows that at the department there is a Secretary's
advisory council consisting of the assistant secretary, the chief
of naval operations, the chiefs of bureaus, the commandant of the
marine corps, and the judge advocate general. There is also a

Logistics 249

chief of naval operations with a corps of assistants of high rank
chosen for their ability and professional knowledge. There is a
third body known as the general board, to whom are referred
questions of moment by the Secretary. The composition of this
board gives great weight to its decisions, and these have come to be
regarded as expressing the highest technical opinion in our country
on naval subjects. Again, each bureau chief holds his authority
directly from the Secretary, and orders issued by a bureau chief
within the scope of his responsibility have the same weight as if
signed by the Secretary. There is too much talent here to be con-
sulted ; too many authorities on highly technical matters to be
coordinated and reconciled by one official to whom it is all new
ground.

There is a strong feeling among officers who are familiar with
the practical work of the Navy Department and who have noted
the loss of efficiency which results from so many heads that the
chief of operations should exercise full authority over the bureau
chiefs. This I believe to be radically incorrect. It is simply an
illustration of the natural desire of strong men trained to exercise
authority seeking to extend their power in every direction.

In the first place, what should be the relation between the
strategical branch of the navy and the logistics branch ? Of course,
it must be recognized that the mission of logistics is prescribed by
strategy, but it is incorrect to deduce from this that strategy must
direct the manner in which logistics shall perform its task. My
idea is that the office of operations represents strategy and that the
various bureaus of the department represent logistics ; moreover,
I believe that the relation of these two branches should correspond
very closely with those which exist in mercantile life between the
consumer and the producer.

Consider one or two special cases :

Operations (strategy) requires a number of battleships, battle-
cruisers, scouts, destroyers, submarines, flying machines, etc., with
certain characteristics. Operations does not produce these things ;
it needs them in its operations. Accordingly, operations (strategy)
calls upon the bureaus (logistics) to supply them.

. Or, operations finds that certain ships are in need of repairs or
alterations ; it calls upon the bureaus to make these repairs or alter-
ations.

250 Lo(;isTics

Again, operations needs officers and men in accordance with its
plans and organization. It is the duty of the bureaus concerned
to fill this need.

The examples could be multiplied indefinitely.

The cooperation between operations and the manufacturing
bureaus should be limited to the cooperation between consumer and
l)roducer. The consumer does not enter the shops of the producer,
nor does he dictate how the producer shall run his plant ; but he
does consult with the producer and order in accordance with his
needs and what the market affords. So operations should not enter
the domain of the manufacturing bureaus of the Navy Department
nor dictate to these departments how their shops should be run.
Operations should consult with the manufactiu-ing bureaus, tell
them what it wants, and then insist on getting it. Operations
^should have no authority over the bureaus outside of this. If
•operations cannot get what it wants, operations reports the fact to
.the common superior, the Secretary, wdio then takes such adminis-
trative action as may be necessary to correct the trouble.

Efficiency in gunnery, aviation, or in any other department of
the navy is a product just as much as efficient guns, flying machines,
etc. The bureau of navigation (a better name for which would be
bureau of personnel) should produce . (Officers and men capable
of handling the materiel supplied to the fleet by the manufacturing
department. A proper organization places the training of officers
and men in the bureau of navigation (personnel) ; target practice
and engineering competition have no pro])er place in operations.

On the other hand, inspection is a very important department
of operations. In mercantile life the producer nuist ])lease the con-
sumer ; competition enforces this law. There is no such competi-
tion in the Navy Department, and w^e must resort to inspection in
order to maintain this important relation between the producer and
the consumer. Accordingly, operations must develop and avail
itself of a thoroughly organized system of inspection to pass judg-
ment on personnel and materiel supplied 1\v the bureaus on demand
of operations.

In order that operations may be reasonable and logical in its
demands on the bureaus, it must be competent to formulate cor-
rectly all demands and specifications for the materiel and personnel
it requires, and to this end there must be free conference between
operations and the bureaus, and officers of the logistics branches

Logistics 251

should be detailed for duty in subordinate positions in the office of
operations.

It is a mistake for operations to duplicate the functions of the
bureaus or to take charge of or direct any of their work. Its
mission is to formulate its demands from the point of view of the
consumer. When it loses sight of this mission and encroaches
upon the various missions of the bureaus, it violates one of the
principles 'of organization and there is a loss of efficiency. Here
again we shall be kept in the straight and narrow path if we act
on the theory that operations is the consumer and that the bureaus
are the producers.

We have now defined the relations between operations a'nd the
bureaus ; but it is evident that if we are to get cooperation among-
rhe bureaus themselves, they cannot deal individually with oper-
ations, else we shall soon have operations the coordinating- factor,
which would result in operations absorbing the bureaus — and this
is exactly what many able officers advocate and which the writer
believes is absolutely wrong.

At present, the bureau chiefs communicate directly with the Sec-
retary, who in general is without technical training and whose mis-
sion is policy and is not logistics any more than it is strategy. But
the Secretary appears to be the only recognized coordinating factor,
and the Secretary's advisory council, consisting of the chief of
operations, the chiefs of bureaus, the commandant of the marine
corps, and the judge advocate general, emphasizes the democratic
spirit of equality existing among these various departments of the
navy. This is not correct organization.

Just as all the activities of strategy are grouped under one head,
the chief of operations, who is, nominally, the highest technical
expert available in that branch, so the activities of logistics should
be grouped under another head who should be the best technical
expert available to cope with the problems he would have to handle.
The office of assistant secretary of the navy ofters a suitable title
and position for the person selected for the task. He would neces-
sarily have authority over the chiefs of bureaus and over navy
yards as industrial establishments. Any man competent to be the
president of a railroad or of a large manufacturing concern would
have the necessary quahfications.

The marine corps is an organization complete in itself, with its
own strategical and logistic divisions. It is correct that operations
should direct its activities.

^52

Logistics

The judge advocate general is technically in the Secretary's
office. He is a law officer, pure and simple, and has no other
functions. He properly has nothing to do with either strategy or
logistics.

The general board should be looked upon as a body of the
highest technical experts to answer questions of strategy or tactics
laid before them by the chief of operations. Plans of campaign
drawn up in the office of operations should be thoroughly discussed
by them, and they could themselves, if called upon to do so, draw
up war plans for the chief of operations.

A PROPOSED ORGANIZATION OF THE NAVY DEPARTMENT

SHOWING THE RELATION OF POLICY. STRATEGY

AND LOGISTICS

Law
J. A. G.

POLICY
(Secretary

General
Board

STRATEGY

Chief of Operations
(Admiral)

2.° 2 ^ o'^ ^ ^ K

- ET. y :i =! ^

(Ti O) — •

LOGISTICS
Chief of Logistics
(Asst. Secretary)

C ^r, !i: -1 3 C

•^ A T- '^ c-crq :=

►o :t.<^ 0-3 =-cf;

n> o 3 2 -1 fl

5 2 c-

Note. — Logistics orders (from seniors) and recommendations (from
juniors) affecting the movements of a vessel, or its efficiency to an
important degree, should go through official channels, including oper-
ations. Other logistics correspondence should pass direct between the
bureau concerned and the commanding officer.

There must be cordial cooperation between strategy and logistics, and
both mu?t loyally support policy.

Logistics 253

The above organization eliminates the system of " balance and
check," which now acts as a brake on the energy of the department.
Far from diminishing the importance of the Secretary of the
Navy, it enhances his importance and authority by liberating
him from a multiplicity of unfamiliar details and leaves him free
to exercise control and supervision, select the right man for each
task, and direct the whole machine. He ceases to be the head of
a number of small units, the energies of which he must constantly
seek more or less effectively to coordinate ; he becomes the head of
an organized body, a great unit which looks to him for supervision
and guidance and whose energies he controls and directs. It is
" scientific management " applied to the navy.

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.

AYES HA
(concluded)

By Lieutenant Hellmuth von Mucke,
Imperial German Navy

Free translation by Lieutenant J. H. Kleix, Jr., U. S. Navy

NI. The Shipwreck

The return from Sanaa was accomplished without interruption in
the same manner as the march approaching that place. I went on
ahead with a few men in order to hurry the preparations for
another cruise at sea. I reached Hodeida about a day and a half
ahead of the remainder. We managed to make the caravan trip
in eight days. We rode day and night with very few pauses. Only
when the animals had to be changed did we stop. As we had sent
the Choising away, and as it was impossible to rake up any more
steamers, the only way to leave Hodeida seemed to be by means of
" zambuks." These are the small, open sailing vessels, rigged as
" dhaus," used along this coast.

I succeeded in unearthing two zambuks at Hodeida, each about
14 meters long and 4 meters beam. These were gathered together
in a small bight to the northward of Hodeida, called Jabana.
Because of the French armored cruiser, which still maintained its
permanent and sleepy watch, it was impossible for me to start
from Hodeida. She might possibly wake up. Knowing that the
country swarmed with English and French spies, I spread the
rumor that I intended to sail from the bight at Isa on March 12.
The expected actually happened. On the afternoon of March 12,
for the first time since the beginning of the war, an English gun-
boat appeared in the forlorn Isa bight, which boasted neither
house, tree, blade of grass nor water, and examined the beach for
us with its searchlight. The poor fools, what would they not have
given to have really known where we actually were !

Note. — This story of Ayesha is published by permission of Ritter & Co.,
Boston, who hold the American copyright and by whom Ayesha will shortly
be published in book form. J. W. G.

256 " Ayesha "

On March 14, about 5 p. m., my squadron left Jabana. The
battle-flag- flew at the stern of my proud flagship, and, with three
cheers to His Majesty the Kaiser, we started the cruise. Lieuten-
ant Gerdis commanded the second flagship. Strict discipline took
the place of the other absent ships of the squadron.^ As the other
zambuk was a little larger than mine, I had the sick men put
aboard that one. Malaria, dysentery and typhoid still bothered the
men, and I had several whose health was such as to cause me not a
little uneasiness. I was unwilling, however, to leave my sick
behind, as I was certain that nothing but a change of climate would
improve them.

I managed to get all the latest information, such as it was, con-
cerning the English, and I therefore knew that the English block-
ading ships, two gunboats and the auxiliary cruiser Empress of
Russia, were maintaining a line of blockade from Loheiya over to
Kamaran, Jebel Zebayir to Jebel Zukur. I therefore had to run
this blockade with my sailboats. In order to prevent both boats
from being taken at the same place, I ordered Lieutenant Gerdis to
leave me. We had decided upon a rendezvous to the north where
each should wait for the other a certain length of time.

Soon the second zambuk disappeared in the gathering darkness.
For the first time we now began losing headway and at daybreak it
was flat calm. To our great dismay we lay motionless, and at sun-
rise found ourselves in the exact position where we least wished to
be, namely, in the middle of the English blockading line. Any
minute the appearance of the tops of English masts could be
expected. Our hopes ran low. The calm succeeded in holding us
more effectually to this place than any action of the enemy could
bring about. But I had not planned my departure for over the
" week-end " without an object in view. I was sufificiently familiar
with the customs of the English to know that during the week-end.
that is, Saturday evening and Sunday, the gentlemen were not keen
for work. And so it happened that we were not sighted throughout
that whole day.

In the course of the afternoon the breeze set in again and about
evening at sundown we could go to sleep with the comfortable
reflection that we had, even with two becalmed sailboats, been able
to run the English line of blockade.

^ Translator's Note. — Rather difficult to properly express this German
pun in English.

" AVESHA " 257

I continued the journey, with my light draft vessels, between the
coral reefs of the Farisan bank. This is a giant coral bank, about
350 sea-miles long, where large ships cannot go, and even small
boats are not entirely free from danger. During the next day, my
second zambuk came in sight. She received orders to remain with
me thereafter.

Life aboard the zambuks was. so to speak, right comfortable.
There was not very much room. With the Arabs, who tended ship,
the interpreters and pilots, we counted up 35 men per boat, so that
in a space 14 meters long by 4 meters wide not much space remained
for each individual. In addition, a great deal of room in the boat
was given over to provisions, water, munitions and machine guns.
As a protection against the glowing heat, we spread woolen
blankets overhead during the day, so that at least our heads were
kept in the shade. The equipment also was rather meager. In
each zambuk a small open fireplace of sheet metal was built in and
on this we had to cook for 30 men. We attempted to constantly
change our menu with the various means at our disposal, so that
on the first day we ate, for example, tough mutton with rice and
grease ; on the next day, rice, grease and tough mutton ; on the
third day, grease with tough mutton and rice ; and so forth and so
on. We were making very slow progress. Frequently we had to
contend with calms, adverse winds and currents. We were not
spared internal dissensions either. At night they raged most
strenuously. Of them, the cockroaches, bugs and lice were espe-
cially active. Clothes not actually in use had to be lashed down in
order to avoid the danger of having them walk away. As soon as
the sun came up, shirts were pulled off and the process of " killing
lice " begun. The record was 74 lice in one shirt.

On Mach 17, I signalled my squadron " I intend to anchor
this evening." We had now approached the place where my
accompanying pilots declared it impossible, even for our small
boats, to navigate at night. About 6 p. m. we were drawing close
to the Island of Marka where we intended to anchor. The pilot
steered the ship for the anchorage. I. with my zambuk, led the
way. The second boat followed at about 200 meters. We had a
right stiff breeze and a noticeable sea on, and were glad to get into
the lee of the island. But we had not reckoned on our skilful
Arabian pilot. He piloted so beautifully that presently we struck
a coral reef. Two, three times we hit her hard so that I had the

258 " Ayesha "

gravest doubts as to whether the boat would stand it. Then we
again drew clear (evidently jumped it) and were in deep water
once more. I anchored immediately. In order to keep the rear
ship from hitting the same reef, I yelled and signalled to her. But
she also hit it. She had already arrived in the coral reef, and, when
turning around, struck another reef. Noticing her flag being
hoisted, I knew by this sign that something serious had hap-
pened. Immediately I saw the boat slowly begin to list. From
the way the mast shook I knew the ship had hit. In an instant the
boat disappeared ; only the mastheads inclined backwards out of
the water. And this occurred close to sunset.

Night falls very quickly in this place. Ten minutes after sun-
set it is absolutely dark. There was no moonlight. Immediate
help was necessary. We had already hoisted sail on our zambuk.
All hands got busy. The anchor was torn out of the ground, and
while performing- a desperate maneuver, in which we almost struck
the reef again, we managed to get clear and hasten to the aid of
our comrades. I went as near as possible to the sunken zambuk and
anchored. Due to the reefs I bad to stand off abotit 400 meters.
We had no boats to communicate with each other. Each zambuk
had a so-called dugout ( these are very small paddle boats chopped
out of tree trunks) that could hold at most two men, and whose
use was now *i serious f[uestion in this high sea. I promptly sent
mv dtigouts over to her.

Meantime it had grown dark. We had a lantern aboard our
zambuk. Despite all eft'orts we could not light the lantern to
show our location due to the breeze constantly blowing out the
matches. " Bring the torches," I ordered. We had brought along
several torches from the Emden and Choising for just such an
emergency. They were broitght out and made ready. The fuse
worked, but the torches would not light. They had, in the course
of months, become too wet.

Soon thereafter I heard voices in the night astern of us. They
were the first of the men from the other zambuk who were swim-
ming on past us because they could not see. We yelled and blew
our battery whistles to attract their attention and, after several
anxious minutes, succeeded in doing so. These men had been
swimming away from the other zambuk. They had no other
means of knowing which direction to swim, except by means of a
star that indicated our general direction. How many men were in

" Ayesha " 259

the water I had no means of knowing-. I was also greatly alarmed
because that entire region swarmed with sharks. Above all, I knew
not what had become of the sick who were too weak to help them-
selves. Now, once and for all, it became imperative to have light.
As everything else had failed, I had wood gathered together,
petroleum poured over it, and without considering the ever-
present danger of a large fire in an open boat, I had the fire lighted.
We held our torches in the flames until they became sufficiently
dry to burn. At the same time we fired some white rockets that we
still retained, and which, thank God, functioned properly, even
though these rockets would call attention to us from miles around..
Finally, the two dugouts returned. They were each paddled by
one man and carried a sick man in addition. The remaining sick
that could not help themselves were brought back either in the dug-
outs or were lashed alongside them in the water and towed aboard.
At the same time the other swimmers arrived from all sides.
Those that could not swim, and there were several, wore life pre-
servers and tried to paddle along as best they could. By and by
more returned. Soon we had over 50 men aboard so that my
zambuk went down so far in the water that we could not hold any
more men. I therefore ordered all superfluous cargo thrown
overboard, including provisions and water, in order to lighten the
ship and to endeavor to carry all the men. ( )nly weapons, muni-
tions and provisions and water for three days remained aboard.

^leanwhile our torches had almost burned out and I feared that
the light would not last long enough to be certain of rescuing all
the men from the sunken boat. Only the officers failed to arrive —
and with the arrival of the last officer our last torch spluttered
out. So now, at least, every man was saved. According to the
advices of the officer, the sunken zambuk struck a steep coral reef
and held there, and we had only our luck to thank for the fact that
the masthead remained above water. It could easily have happened
that the zambuk would have slid off the reef and disappeared
into the deep. Then most certainly would all the sick have drowned
and probably also a great portion of the non^swimmers.

Near us lay another zambuk belonging to the tribe of " Idrisz."
The Idrisz is an Arabian clan which is not on good terms with the
Turks, and also strongly opposed to the advent of Europeans.
This zambuk had also sent her dugout to help my second sunken
boat. But as soon as she saw that we were Europeans, which she

26o " Ayesha "

knew by the tropical helmet of our doctor, she turned around and
left us to our fate. As it was rather difficult for me to proceed with
an overladen boat containing about 70 men, especially when I con-
sidered the condition of our provision supply, I sent our Arabian
interpreter to the Idrisz' boat shortly before daylight, to offer them
a large sum for the use of their boat for a few days. They abso-
lutely refused, however, stating that not even for £100,000 would
they do anything for the dogs of Christians. It would have been an
easy matter for me to have taken the zambuk by armed force,
which I had planned to do that morning. The whole proceeding,
• however, was not a pleasant one. as a tormenting political discus-
sion would follow such an act. It resolved itself into a question of
using armed force against an ally, even though this small uncivil-
ized part of our ally consisted of a wild tribe.

But the next day our " star shone bright " once again. A stiff
and fresh southerly blow came on that made it possible to sail
before the wind even with a heavily laden boat, and a speedy
journey seemed to be ordained. Therefore I left the Idrisz' boat
in peace.

We quickly set to w^ork to rescue what we could from the
sunken zambuk. The weapons especially were wanted. During
the night the zambuk had sunk deeper. The mast broke off and
the ship had capsized on the bottom. By diving we managed to
salvage two machine guns, several revolvers and some ammunition.
All the other stores, clothes, etc., and unfortunately our entire
medical outfit, were lost. The stiff breeze pushed us ahead further
that one single afternoon than we would have accomplished in
perhaps six days under the preceding conditions.

In the evening we landed at Kunfidda. Here we were received
in grand style, and although advance preparations could not have
been made for us, nevertheless they hurriedly prepared a Turkish
meal which we, according to the customs of this region, quickly
devoured without the use of knives, forks, plates, etc. A whole
mutton, filled with rice, was set on the table. Eagerly we set to
work to tear the flesh from the carcass, meanwhile stuffing hand-
fuls of the rice into our mouths. In Kunfidda we met a Turkish
official and his wife who also wished to journey to Constantinople
and therefore they joined us. This official later on in the trip
performed valuable service as a dragoman, i. e., as interpreter.

" Ayes HA " 261

Quickly we found a larger zambuk in Kuntidda. We rented this
one and started off, all hands in one boat. We reached Lidd in the
afternoon of March 24, not having encountered any special dan-
gers. This was the most northerly point of the Farisan bank,
among whose coral reefs we had, up to this time, found security
from our English searchers. And now our cruise would have to
be continued on the open ocean. It was well understood that the
English would do everything possible to capture us. In Lidd I
happened by chance to be given a letter that had been written by
a merchant in Dschidda. He wrote that many English warships
were closely blockading Dschidda and that every zambuk that
attempted to leave the harbor was searched by the English.

Therefore it was impossible to continue further by water. It
was necessary to proceeed overland. We remained in Lidd for
two days in order to gather the necessary animals and organize a
caravan, to arrange for our water supply and to make such other
necessary preparations as would enable us to go on ahead.

In Lidd we had our first casualty. A seaman, Keil by name, had
been suffering from typhus ever since we arrived at Hodeida. The
shock of the shipwreck was too much for his w-eakened constitu-
tion. Above all, he suffered the lack of medical assistance which
we had been vmable to recently give him as we had lost all our
medicines. He died at 3 a. m., March 27. Two of his comrades
kept constant watch at his bedside and also later, at his bier. We
prepared a small rowboat, sewed the remains in sailcloth and
weighted it with stones. The war-flag covered the whole. On
this we placed his hat and his bared saber. After a short religious
ceremony we towed the remains of our comrade out to sea and
sank it in deep water. Three volleys were fired over his watery
grave. It was impossible to bury him ashore as the fanatical and
wild inhabitants would probably have disturbed even the peace of
the dead. On March 28, we again took up the march.

XII. The Surprise

It was not an easy matter to procure in Lidd sufficient camels for
the journey. Lidd is a very small town of only a few hundred
inhabitants and has no commercial relations. In order to make the
journey more pleasant, I considered it necessary to call on the
Sheik of Lidd. This was the first time a Christian had ever entered
the sheik's house.

262 " Ayes II A "

The arrangeinents were made by my dragoman. After Ave had
exchanged a few gifts he invited me to dine. His hovise was a
wooden-framed, matting-covered atTair without windows. Two
divans, covered with skins, were set on the sides of the room.
Weapons hung from the walls. The other furnishings of the
room consisted of smoking materials. Before the meal we were
served with either cups of mokka or something like lemon-sour.
The mokka was the Arabian kind, that is, not the beans but the
shells of the beans were boiled. The whole concoction is a bitter
drink, not very pleasing to the European taste, but out of defer-
ence to our host had to be gulped d-nvn under any circumstances.
While we were still sitting in the room, preparations for the meal
were begun. These commenced with the laying of a fairly large,
round, woven straw matting upon the bare earth. Servants then
entered and heaped a mountain of rice on the straw mat. A small
can of preserved mixed jMckles completed the table arrangements.
Une sat, rather one la)-, at the table. For all that, everybody was
provided with a spoon. All hands set gavly to work on the rice
mountain.. Meantime, in front of the house, the meat Avas being-
prepared, consistin.g of a whole roasted sheep. There were no
knives and forks. Even the mutton did not appear on the table:
instead, the two servants detailed for our service tore chunks of
mutton from the sheep with their hands and laid the torri-oit pieces
on the straw matting before each of us.

During the tv/o days spent in I.idd \\-e succeeded in gathering
in about go camels. With these we could begin the march. The
remaining camels Ave could pick up on the road the next daA^ so
sairl the sheik. I l:)ought a large outfit of straw mats vrhich T
divided among mv ])eo]:)!e. These later on proved their worth as
sunshades. In the evening Ave formed rmr caravan and left the
place, taking up our march into the desert. A large number of
camels carried only eciuipage, esjiecially waf-f-r, munitions, machine
guns and proAasions. The A\'ater sup',)l\- Avas net satisfactory. T
bad to coun.t on dift^.culties wliich would j^-event our replenisli-ing
our water supply- for da) s at a time.

A journe}- with camels is very tedious. Son-ietimes the camel
goes ahead, and, according to its standard, not very fast: but Ave
had a caravan of 90 at first, later on, i io camels. Except for the
officers" camels, Avhich v\-ere running singly, the other animals
v.-ere tied togetb.er ( in that tbe sr.out of the rear ariimal Avas con-

" Ayesha " 263

nected with the tail of the one forward of it by a Hne abotit 4
meters long). A line of camels connected together in such a way
could not, of course, proceed at the same speed that a single camel
would travel, instead the speed of the whole line was limited by the
speed of the slowest camel. Frequently halts had to be made
because the packs slid sideways, the girths had to be replaced, the
saddles fell oft', and so forth.

We kept to a trail that skirted the sea. The entire region is
unsafe. Robberies and caravan attacks occur daily. Since leaving'
Lidd we carried our guns loaded and ready for action. ' Luckily
for us, the nights were light, due to a full moon. According to
rule, we travelled from 4 p. m. until the next morning between 9
and 10, or whenever we reached a place where we intended to rest.
The average day's work was approximately 14 to 18 hours" riding.
Camels are pacers. The riding, therefore, was quite tiresome.
The w^atering places that we passed were holes about 12 to 14
meters deep, dug down in the desert sand, into which leather bags
are lowered in order to draw water. The expression "water"
does not mean water according to the European definition of that
word. On the ground around the water-holes we frequently saw
dog carcasses, sheep skeletons and such. The water was an evil-
smelling, brown to black colored hog-wash, full of animals. In
any case, it could not possibly be used before boiling. Frequently
it had a very salty taste.

We were piloted from Lidd by a Turkish officer and seven gen-
darmes. Further along we Avere guided by the Arabian sheik of
the territory in which we happened to be : because it is the custom
to take the man, responsible for your safetv, along with you as
hostage. Such measures are not unusyal in this region. And so
our journey continued without interruption until March 31.

On this day, about 1 1 a. m., we arrived at a water-hole one dav's
journey distant from Dschidda. Dschidda was our next goal. At
this water-hole we found an officer and 17 gendarme^ w'ho had
come out from Dschidda as emissaries to greet us for our Turkish
allies and the civil population of Dschidda. Also tliey brought us
a bountiful supply of water. We made the usual arrangements at
this water-hole, hung our straw mats and woolen blankets over the
low bushes and lay down with our heads under the-e so as, by
hook or by crook, to get some slielter from the sun's rays. Cook-
ing began as usual, as soon as we were sheltered. l_ :^ually by this

264 " Ayesha "

time all hands had gathered all the dry wood lying around. Then
we immediately built a regular fire and the customary food (rice,
and when we had luck, mutton) was prepared at once.

When I saw these men who were sent out from Dschidda, I
thought that at last the most dangerous part of our trip was over.
We were now again approaching a city in which a strong garrison
of 300 men was to be found, so I said to myself that if 17 men
could safely travel this distance out from Dschidda, then could I,
most certainly, with my 50 men safely travel the same distance in
to Dschidda.

This region is inhabited by a clan consisting entirely of direct
descendants of the prophet, but nevertheless noted because of its
wildness and its thieving proclivities. The name of the region,
which is very illustrative, is " Father of Wolves."

As usual we got under way about 4 o'clock in the afternoon.
The trail led a distance inland from the sea. The country con-
sisted of nothing but sand-hills. It was never possible to see more
than 400 meters away. As soon as we had ridden over one sand-
hill, the next immediately cut ofif a further view. Tufts of tough
grass, about 2 feet high, grew all over the hills. Suddenly, on our
right hand, well off the caravan trail, appeared about 12 or 15
Bedouins, riding at a brisk trot, and disappeared in the direction
from which we had come. That was something strange, because,
according to the rules governing caravans for thousands of years,
it w^as understood that the usual trails should never be departed
from, and, further, it was understood that no one should trot at
night. Also our Turkish guides thought they were robbers, as it
was reported in Dschidda that a band of 40 thieves were roaming
around. While at Lidd I sent information on ahead to the authori-
ties at Dschidda and also at Mekka, so I was reasonably certain that
the entire region between these points would know of our coming.
Everybody would also know that we were not an ordinary com-
mercial caravan, accompanied merely by the usual guard, but that
our caravan consisted of 50 armed men especially equipped with
four machine guns. Therefore I had not worried much about the
40 thieves roaming around here. In order to be better able to
control and protect my men, I broke the long line of camels into
two parts, making two lines of 50 camels each. I forbade the
usual sleeping aboard the camels, had the guns prepared, and saw
everything cleared for action. The orders for my men were, no
matter what ha]'|tene(l, U> " Gather around the leader! ''

" Ayesha " 265

The officers rode at the head of the caravan. As the first Hght
of day appeared over the high mountains, rising up out of the
desert on our right hand, I began to beHeve that all was well and
that an attack by Bedouins in daylight was not to be expected. I
therefore hung my rifle over the saddle, unstrapped my heavy
cartridge belt and rode slowly along the caravan to inspect the
right flank.

I had arrived at the middle of the caravan when I suddenly
heard a clear, sharp whistle, followed by the crash of a volley. A
rain of lead fell uninterruptedly upon our caravan from all sides
and at short range. The whizzing and whistling of bullets was
so loud and continuous that Twas unable to make myself heard
sufficiently to give orders. I tore my gun ofif the saddle, sprang
to the ground and ran forward followed by my men. At the head
of the caravan the engagement had really commenced. We could
see the flashes of the enemy guns through the twilight about 80
meters away. The riflemen themselves could not be seen, norcould
they see us much better, while the tall forms of the camels were
plainly visible, forming excellent targets for the enemy. Our only
points of aim were the flashes of the enemy guns. As we were
attacked on all sides, it was impossible to decide which way to
turn next. The larger part of my men lay up forward with me.
A s^all part remained at the rear as per my orders. Then we
decided to bring our best weapons, the machine guns, into action.
Two of these were tied up on the camels up forward, the other
two at the rear. After a few moments the machine guns were
brought into action, and hardly had they begun to rattle ofif their
salvos over the enemy's line, when the enemy, not accustomed to
this new form of attack, ceased firing. We made use of this pause
to pull the still standing camels to the ground, so that they would
not make such excellent targets, and then we issued out ammu-
nition and consolidated our forces.

Having received the heaviest fire from forward and to the left,
I brought my men up to that point. Our offensive equipment con-
sisted of four machine guns, 13 German rifles, 10 old Turkish
rifles that I received in Kunfidda to replace the ones lost out of the
zambuk, and three modern Turkish rifles that were divided among
the officers. In addition, we had 24 revolvers, but these could only
be used for close action. I could not determine the exact strength
of the enemy. There might have been 60 or 70 firing rapidly, or
there might possibly have been considerably more firing leisurely.

266 " Ayesha "

The (juestion of enemy strength would soon be answered when the
approaching- dayHght appeared. As it grew lighter we could see
that all the nearest sand-hills, completely surrounding us, were
black with Bedouins. ]\Iy men behaved excellently. In spite of the
overwhelming strength of the enemy, who were estimated at not
less than 300, there was not the slightest sign of fear among any of
my men. Although I had not given any orders, bayonets had been
fixed on the muzzles of all the rifles. While I w^as considering what
should next be done, the answer to my question came from a man
lying close to me on my right hand, who said : " What next? Are
we going to start soon, lieutenant? "' " What do? " was my return
question. " Why, charge them, of course! " replied this iS-year-
old stripling. " So be it. You are right. Rise and charge ! "'
And, amid loud cheers, we charged the enemy's line. Such a pro-
ceeding at a caravan-looting was certainly something new. Like-
wise very few shots came from the enemy. \\'hen the ghttering
bayonets came on, the enemy fled precipitously. Our fire, thinning
out his ranks, followed him. First we charged to the left, then
forward, and then to the right. It was unnecessary to charge the
rear. They had already disappeared in that quarter.

In that wav we widened the surrounding circle so that the enemy
w^as now about 1200 meters away. The fi.ring ceased. I assembled
mv men around the caravan. The machine guns remained in
position all ready for instant use.

In s])ite of the rain of bullets, which they shoAvered on us at
almost point-blank range, we had. thank God, but one (Tcmian
wounded. But w^hen I turned toward our Arabian allies I was
dumfounded. In Germany we have a proverb that says "He
counts the number of his loved ones, and behold, instead of six he
finds seven.'' But here this proverl) was reversed. Of the 24 gen-
darmes there remained but seven. There were no deaths. The
missing ones we found later on in Dschidda. The Arabs that
stood by us had been hit in the legs. This was caused by their
remaining lu^hind seeking shelter among the camels instead of
advancin.g on the enemy with us. As mv men were firing from the
ground at a distance of about 30 to 40 meters in advance of the
camels, the enemy could not see them in the dark and fired over
their lieads. They could only see the large camels. I'efore it
occurred to the .Arabs to drag the can]els down to earth and thereby
be better i)rotecte(l. the enemy l)ullets flew lietween the camels' legs
and struck the precious bodies of these heroes.

" Ayesha " 267

We knew nothing" of course concerning the enemy's casualties.
We did, however, count 15 dead ones in the places they abandoned
when we charged. These corpses, except one, had neither rifles
nor ammunition. According to Bedouin custom, the fallen are
despoiled of their weapons. The single gun captured, a breech-
loading rifle of modern English construction, was added to our
service. We could still see the Bedouins on the sand-hills in the
distance. As soon as any of them showed themselves, they were
immediately fired upon, because it then occurred to me to give
them a good moral lesson.

We could not remain in our present position very long. At
first I had an idea that I was confronted merely by an ordinary
robbery, and imagined that the enemy, having already suffered a
handsome loss, would see the error of his ways and accordingly
disappear.

A large number of our camels were struck. We unstrapped all
supplies from them that were of any value, especially the water,
and placed them on the other camels instead of the less necessary
equipment which we then left behind.

I decided to turn sharp to the left in the direction of the sea,
which could be discerned shimmering in the distance. If I reached
there I would have at least one flank free. It certainly angered me
to be unable to use the machine guns on the march as I had no suit-
able gun carriages. They had to be carried on camels. In order to
keep the caravan closelv consolidated, T formed it in ranks of
four to six camels. The wounded were secured to the sides of the
camels awav from the enemy so as to Ije better protected. Two
camels with two machine guns rode out ahead, the other two
machine guns were similarly carried at the rear ; an advance guard
of 10 men in open order preceded the caravan by about 150
meters, a rear guard of to men also marched the same distance in
the rear. Nine men with rifles were disposed as best we could on
the tv,'0 flanks. The other men, armed solely with revolvers and
who could, therefore, only fight at short rang:e, remained in the
middle of the caravan. The advance guard was commanded by
Lieutenant Gerdis, the rear guard by Lieutenant Schmidt, the
flanks bv Lieutenant (iyszling. The caravan itself, with Dr.
Lang in charge of the wounded, was led by Lieutenant Wellmann.

Slowly we got underwa}- : flags waving at the head. My hopes
that the enemv would not further molest us were not fulfilled.
After marching about to minutes we were fired on again from all

268 " Ayesha "

sides. We could hardly see the enemy. The sand-hills prevented
our looking ahead further than 400 meters. We could only see
about 10 or 20 black heads bob up on this sand-hill and then on that
sand-hill. The next instant a salvo would fall around the caravan^
and before we could prepare to return the fire the heads would
disappear and another hail of lead would come from a different
direction.

Most remarkably, we had no casualties at first, even though the
enemy's fire was heavy, small sand splashes rising about us, while
pebbles and sand flecks flew up into our faces. Soon we dis-
covered that the heaviest attack was directed on the rear guard.
Every few minutes the men there had to turn about and, b>- heavy
firing, check the enemy.

I was with the rear guard when I received word from forward
that strong detachments of the enemy were forming ahead of us.
On arrival at the advance guard I found the whole horizon black
with Bedouins. At the same time I received word from aft that
one of the camels carrying a machine gun was shot down. The
rear guard stopped to cover the machine gun and Lieutenant
Schmidt ordered another camel unloaded and sent to the rear. I
had already heard the machine guns of the rear guard firing. They
had. in the meantime, been unstrapped and run into action.

I then brought the caravan to a halt, which was not an easy
matter as the majority of the Arabian gendarmes and camel
drivers had deserted into the night at the beginning of the fight.
On my way to the rear guard I received word that a seaman,
Rademacher by name, had been killed and that Lieutenant Schmidt
was fatally wounded by bullets through his abdomen and breast.
Lieutenant Wellman had by this time assumed command of the
rear guard, bringing with him from the caravan two animals to
carry the machine guns.

As we waited, the enemy's tire again increased and soon we were
in the midst of a lively engagement. Suddenly, as if by magic, the
firing absolutely ceased, and as I dumfoundedly looked around for
the reason, I saw two of the still remaining Arabian gendarmes
waving large white cloths and running toward the enemy. At
the same time a third Arabian gendarme came to me to explain
that his comrades wished to hold a parley with the enemy. As
unnecessary as I deemed this to be, it was from the first wholly
pleasing, because I had in the meantime clearly seen that this was

" A YES HA " 269,

not an ordinary robbery, but that we actually faced an organized
military situation. As we were outnumbered at least ten to one,
a march with camels on the open level under the continuous fire
of the enemy was impossible. My most powerful weapons, the
machine guns, could not be used on the march, and my 29 rifles
were not much protection as I had an insufficient number of men
to use them on all sides at the same time. And finally we would
gradually be picked ofi^ one after the other as we proceeded.

We used the pause in the firing to intrench ourselves. We made
breastworks out of camel saddles (filled with sand), cofifee, rice
and provision sacks. The encircling walls we filled up, to the best
of our ability, with sand. In the middle of the camp we gathered
the camels. Loop-holes were made in great haste. Other facilities
lacking, we made the loop-holes with our swords and tin plates
( scoops) . Of course, our construction work was done so hurriedly
that it was not as efficient as could be desired. We buried the water
:ontainers deep in the sand so that the enemy bullets would not rip
them open and thus inflict irreparable damage. In the middle of
the camp we constructed another small protection out of sand-filled
petroleum tins, the walls being about i^ meters thick. Within
this we placed the disabled and sick men. the wounded and the
doctor.

As we could expect to be attacked from all sides, and as
our breastworks protected us only from the front, we so placed
the camels around the sides that we also had " living " protection
from the rear. Lieutenant Schmidt, fatally wounded, was carried
into the camp on a stretcher made of rifles and woolen blankets.
The dead seaman was buried then and there.

The four machine guns were planted at the corners, each
hastily protected by a hurriedly thrown up sand-hill. The rifle-
men were detailed around to the important points, the men armed
with revolvers were shoved into the gaps, and ammunition served
out. We had hardly finished these preparations when the enemy's
terms (stipulations) arrived. They were:

" Deliver all weapons and ammunition, all camels, all provisions
and water, and pay £1 1 ,000 in gold. We could then proceed unmo-
lested." Now what do you think of that !

The negotiations were started by the dragoman, who, with his
wife, had joined us at Kunfidda. He also was wounded ! Shot in
the legs ! When he went out to parley, he did not forget to take
his wife along. The next time we saw them was in Dschidda.

2^6 " Ayesha "

The answer that I gave, declared :

" In the first place we had no money. In the second place we
were guests of the land. Get your gold in Dschidda. In the third
place it is not a German custom to deliver up our arms.'"

And then the firing recommenced. The remaining camel drivers
and a number of the Arabian gendarmes improved their time so
well during the pause that they followed our interpreter and his
wife and also disappeared. The fighting continued until dark.
Lying there between our camels and their saddles, we were fairly
well protected. I ordered that their fire be returned slowly. We
did not have a great quantity of ammunition and we fouiid many
cartridges that failed to fire owing to their having been sub-
merged overnight when the zambuk capsized. Therefore I saved
all the best ammunition for the machine guns so that in case of a
night attack I could count on my most powerful weapons for a
fight at close quarters. The remaining ammunition was divided
among the riflemen. We had no further casualties. A number of
camels were shot, but that did not lessen our protection. A dead
camel holds just as many bullets as a live one. The whole day,
however, we did not eat. We had no time to think of that during
daylight. No sooner would one of our men poke his head over the
saddles than a heavy fire was showered on us.

The principal work started at nightfall. About one hour after
sunset the moon rose. Dviring this hour it was so dark that we
could hardly see more than 40 or 50 meters. Everything in the
camp was cleared for repelling an attack in case they stormed us.
All rifles and pistols were loaded, and machine guns made ready
for instant use, the men kneeling with their guns resting on the
breastworks. But nothing happened. With the rising of the moon
we could see about 300 meters and then we set to work to improve
our camp. First we issued out water and passed around some hard-
tack. A part of the officers and men remained on watch and ready.
The others continued to dig the trenches deeper, a job which pro-
ceeded very slowly because of the lack of proper tools. The dead
camels had to be gotten rid of. The carcasses decayed very rapidly
in the extreme heat. They swelled up, the skin burst (along the
welts caused by whipping) leaving the entrails exposed.

Tt was long into the night before our work had progressed suf-
ficiently so that we could no longer begrudge ourselves a little rest.
The trenches were now deep enough to afi^ord sufficient protection

" Ayesha " 271

to a man lying down. On all sides, outboard of the camels, we
built sand-hills. The rifles and revolvers were so choked with
sand that they had to be taken apart, cleaned and then proof fired.
Then we bound up the breech mechanisms with our handkerchiefs
and placed small rag wads in the muzzles in order to keep out the
sand. Above all things, the weapons had to be protected. In camp
we kept a sort of watch in that a certain portion of men remained
on post. The remainder were allowed to sleep on their loaded arms.
One officer was always on watch. During the night the enemy did
not attempt anything startling.

At 9 p. m. Lieutenant Schmidt, w^ho had been fatally wounded,
died. We dug a deep grave in the middle of the camp and about
1 1 p. m. we four officers carried our comrade to his last resting
place. The funeral had to be conducted without the honors of
volley firing. This honor was paid our dead on the next day by
the enemy.

As Dschidda was only 10 hours away by camel and eight hours
on foot, I sent, during the hour preceding moonlight, an English-
speaking Arab that I had brought from Hodeida, into the town.
The man had always appeared to be sensible and reliable. As 1
learned later, he was able to steal through the enemy lines and to
carry the information about our camp to the military authorities
at Dschidda.

A half hour before sunrise I had all hands awakened. This in
case the enemy was there and waiting to recommence the fighting
as early as possible. I intended, in order to make a moral impres-
sion, to immediatelv answer his first shots with heavy salvos so
that he would know that we were all on watch and that our strength
had not diminished.

My expectations were realized. At sunrise the enemy opened
a heavy fire. We answered immediately, energetically firing full
salvos, and each head that was exposed was soon covered by our
fire. This proceeding as we could see, lowered the morale of the
enemy. His firing grew markedly more cautious and weak. We
had therefore accomplished our purpose.

Prior to sunrise, each man was given a glass of water. For the
remainder of the day I could not let them have any more. Not
until after sunset was it possible to take another drink. As we
could not cook during the night, the hardtack were eagerly eaten
and pockets were stufifed full of them.

2';2 " AVESHA "

The enemy fired in a desultory manner. As we were very well
protected, we gave only a weak reply. That we were not dealing'
with an ordinary robbery, but with an organized force instead, was
presently clearly made known to us. From our camp we could see
two large zambuks at anchor ofif the coast. A regular transporta-
tion service was being conducted between the zambuks and our
besiegers. No doubt most of our enemies arrived there in these
two ships. Another part came from overland because we could see
a great horde of camels grazing along the desert horizon.

Unfortunately we had two more severely wounded that day. Of
these, a fireman, Lanig by name, shot through the breast and
stomach, died during the night. We could not give our wounded
much medical assistance, as we had lost all our medical outfit when
the zambuk sank. Luckily we still had some of the Ejiiden's first-
aid packages (that is, rolls of medicated bandages) and several
bottles of cognac.

The day was uneventful. We were made uncomfortable, how-
ever, because one of the camels which broke out of the camp was
shot to windward and the wind carried the most penetrating and
putrid odors toward us. In the camp itself we were pestered by
some most unwelcome guests. Hundreds of thousands of disgust-
ing black beetles, about as long as one's thumb, ran right and left
over the whole camp carrying camel manure. Our trenches were
full of these animals and no matter how many one killed or trod on
there were always more coming. Sleeping was practically out of
the question. They crawled in through your clothes and walked
out over your face. Moreover, in addition to being extremely
unpleasant they introduced an immediate danger to our wounded ;
tetanus germs breed more quickly in horse and camel manure than
in anything else. Such an infection is always followed by the abso-
lutely deadly lockjaw.

The glowing sun made living in the daytime almost unbearable.
Our light-colored head-dress could not be worn as it furnished the
enemy a fine point of aim, while the dazzling light caused smarting
eyes and headaches. It was so hot that one's hands were burned
while shooting if the barrel of the gun were touched. The grease-
soaked camel saddles began to swell, due to heat, and the ensuing
smoky odor constantly pervaded the camp. We covered the sad-
dles with sand as best we could. The wind never ceased blowing
fine particles of sand all over us. Meantime we had to dig out the

" Ayesha " 273

trenches again because the}- became half filled with sand. The fine
sand particles entered the eyes, ears, mouth and nose. The eyes
burned from this continuous irritation. A heavy sand coat, made
by the perspiration, covered our faces so as to make us unrecog-
nizable. About 20 to 30 vultures circled high in the ^\v above the
camp.

At sunset the regular preparations were made again. Two
Arabian gendarmes, disguised as Bedouins, were sent as messen-
gers this night to Dschidda. When the moon rose the men not on
watch lay down to sleep. The enemy began to fire when night fell.

In the middle of the night our sentries began to shoot. Every-
thing was ready for action, standing by to repulse the expected
attack. "Where are they?" I asked the sentry. "Here, there
were several crawling around about 40 meters away." And then
a shower of lead was fired at them. Our guess that these were
enemies was a mistake. They were hyenas and jackals that had
crept up around the camp looking for prey and found the camels'
carcasses to feast on.

And now the sun rose for the third time over our camp. Our
situation was critical. We had received no signs as yet from the
Turkish garrison that our messengers had arrived, as they should
have done, the preceding day. We could hold out this one day
and then the water would be gone in spite of the fact that each
man received only one small cup of water each morning and
evening. Without water we were lost. W^e had to do something
before our men lost their strength. So I gave the order that
morning that we would make a powerful attempt to break through
to Dschidda at sunset unless some news came in the course of the
day. T had hoped thereby to get at least some part of my men
through. Whoever fell. fell. The sick and wounded could not be
taken along. We hoped to God that such extreme measures would
not have to be adopted.

About noon on the third day, a man waving a white cloth sud-
denly appeared from that side where the firing had ceased. I
admitted him to the camp and asked what he wanted. He an-
swered that the enemy had abandoned the idea of our delivering
up our arms, munitions, camels, provisions and water. Instead we
should pay £22,000 in gold. I guessed that the enemy had informa-
tion that the Turkish garrison was coming out and that now, as is
customary with these people, they were endeavoring, as a last

2/4 " Ayesha "

resort, to get as much out of us as they possibl\- could. I therefore
decided to draw out the proceeding's as long as practicable, to ward
ott the raising of the siege, and then to bring the enemy between
two fires. Therefore I painted a rosy description of our camp and
pretended that nothing could be more agreeable to us than to spend
the fresh summer in the desert, the music of salvo firing being-
very pleasant. I showed the man the place where our empty water
containers were buried and made it clear to him that with that
amount of water I could comfortably hold out four weeks longer,
and therefore I knew no reason why I should agree to any dis-
advantageous terms. Munitions I had in abundance, as he knew.
They could thank their lucky stars that I hadn't turned my machine
guns loose on them and pressed the attack home. The parley was
held through a Moroccan, who had been taken prisoner in Belgium
and was sent back from there along with the other Mohammedans
to Turkey. He had accompanied an expedition into Arabia, was
picked up by me in Kunfidda and still remained with us. He spoke
a little broken French.

The enemy's emissary did not seem to be much impressed with
my explanation. He left, but returned in another half hour and
offered the same terms. In order to gain time I told him that I
preferred above all to do business with the enemy commander in
person, and invited the commander himself to visit me in my camp.
The suspicious angel came not, but instead sent me the terrible
threat that since we refused to pay. we would now have heaucoup
de combat. I took this to mean that it was high time for him to
leave and I expressed my surprise that their previous actions
should also not be classed as heaucoup de combat.

To me it had seemed so. Then we received some furious and
violent salvos. Following this a dead silence ensued.

A quarter and then a half hour passed without a single shot.
Slowly and carefully we raised our heads over the camel saddles.
Nothing in sight. " Be careful," I said, " that is only a ruse. Keep
under cover! We have plenty of time. We can't leave before
evening anyway." But as nothing further happened we began to
get up, first on our knees, then finally we stood up and searched
with our glasses. Nothing in sight. We knew not where they had
disappeared. The sand-hills of the desert that swallowed them up
now cut off our view. Fvidentlv thcv had withdrawn.

" Ayesha " 275

The next thing to do was to remain lying", because I was not yet
certain the enemy had really retreated or whether he was trying to
fool us. Anyway, we could not possibly proceed before night.

About an hour after the firing ceased two camel riders appeared,
who, from their clothes and rich saddle cloths, were recognized as
belonging to a class above the Bedouins. Waving a white cloth
they rode up to our camp. We hoisted up our battle-flag as a sign
that we had seen them. They rode up to within 50 meters and then
dismounted. I sent my Moroccan out to them to find out what they
wanted. The answer came back that they wished to speak to the
commander of the German troops. They came from the Emir of
Mecca, who had heard of the attack made on us and was sending
troops to our aid.

That sounded pretty good, but there appeared no signs that this
was really true. I had grown sufficiently accustomed to Arabia to
be rather distrustful. I went out to them with my bared saber in
my hand; behind me marched one of my men with his gun ready.
I gave orders in the camp to be ready for an attack, and in case of
an}- attack on me to commence firing regardless of my personal
safety. But nothing occurred. The two men declared to me that
the second son of the Emir of Mecca, Abdullah, would soon ride
up with his troop. Correct, a half hour later a caravan of 70 camel
riders appeared on the horizon carrying a dark red banner on
which were inscribed various Koran characters. They made some
sort of music on their drums and sang to it. This proceeding I
thought to be rather imprudent as the troops were supposed to be
ready to go into battle.

Abdullah approached to greet me. He conveyed the compli-
ments of his father, spoke his regrets at our having been attacked
and said that he had water for us ; we could now quietly proceed to
Dschidda, as our enemies had retreated.

I distributed the water among my men, then under great dififi-
culties packed the camels, a job which is not an easy one as
" getting a camel ready " had not heretofore been described in the
Bluejacket's Manual of the navy. A large amount of provisions
had to be left behind because about 40 of our camels had been shot.
Accompanied by the emir's troops, we left the camp. It is certainly
a rare occurrence to see a Christian riding in the desert under the
flag of the prophet, next to the son of the Emir of Mecca. After
a few minutes we passed over the abandoned lines of the enemy.

_!76 " Ayesha "

The scoundrels had actually built themselves perfectly good
trenches.

We rode the whole of the next day and then encamped at a well.
Here, for the first time in four days, we were able to have cooked
food, to wash and to lie down to rest. The well was probably
supplied with water by a spring and was about 40 meters deep.
The water that we drew from this well was warm, probably about
30° Celsius.

From our camp, close to the edge of the sea, we could see a
restless searchlight sweeping through the darkness. Our friends,
the English, before Dschidda !

XIH. To THE Railroad

We were very comfortably quartered in Dschidda. The sick
and wounded were given good treatment in a military hospital.
It Avas hard to decide which way to continue my- journey. I was
told that the Bedouins who had attacked us were paid to do so by
the English ; and they were armed with the most modern English
rifles. Leaving here by Avater was next to impossible. The numer-
ous tips of the masts of the English blockading tleet were- visible
daily. In spite of that I decided to leave in zambuks. I still con-
tinued to believe that the sea routes contained greater possibilities
than the land routes.

Therefore it now became necessary to spread the rumor that I
expected to proceed overland. Secretly, however, I procured a
zambuk and a reliable pilot. I was forced to remain in Dschidda
several days because of the wounded. The departure date was set
for April 8. I used a small motorboat. which I discovered in
Dschidda harbor, to make a reconnaissance out to sea for a con-
siderable distance. I saw no English. Was it possible that they
actually swallowed the rumor about the overland route !

Having found a favorable breeze during the night of April 8-9,
we started out. Conditions were much more favorable than when
we broke through the English blockade ofif Hodeida. The wind
held through the night and by sunrise we were out of sight of the
blockading English. I kept the zambuk as near the beach as
possible, squeezing closely to all the reefs in order to render pur-
suit more difficult. Slowly, but surely, we made headway. We
stopped for a short time, not more than a few hours, at several

" Ayes MA " 277

small coast towns in order to get the latest information and to pur-
chase fresh provisions. The pilot I carried from Dschidda knew
the coast very well and, in addition, spoke fairly good English. We
anchored at night because we dared not sail through the reefs in
the dark. At Scherm, Rabegh, I changed zambuks. The one I
broltght from Dschidda was very frail. We had to fill the new^
zambuk with sand ballast. Without either cargo or sand ballast,
it was not very safe to sail her.

The evening anchoring was invariably an unusual evolution.
We could not anchor wherever we wished. The coral reefs.
among which we sailed, were surrounded by great depths of
water. We anchored in something like the following manner.
Sailing up to within a few meters of the reef we would douse sail.
Two Arabs were standing on the bow ready to jump overboard,
carrying with them a small line with iron grapnel hooks on it.
These hooks were jammed in the cavities under the blocks of coral
that were found near the surface. And so we lay. This was not
always practicable, however, because in case the wind shifted we
would have been set on the coral bank and stuck fast.

We encountered a few sailing ships approaching from the north.
It is an Arabian custom for two ships, when meeting, to greet each
other with " howling." The passing ships were somewhat sur-
prised to hear our 50 strong throats chiming in with the energetic
howling of their native associates of our zambuk.

There are no coast clans along this entire stretch, but we did
encounter out at sea some small dugouts containing Arabians
engaged in fishing ; and on those occasions w^e substituted fish for
rice on our menu.

Along the way northward we passed Mecca. The Arabians, as
is their custom, carried on their prayers five times each day facing
toward their holy city, bumping their foreheads on the ground.
And so it happened that in the first days they faced forward w4ien
praying, later on they faced to starboard, and finally they faced aft.

Encountering no unusual difficulties we reached (April 28)
Scherm Mannaiburra, a small protected harbor about 10 miles
south of " El Weg,'' our goal. From there on we had to proceed
without the protection of reefs, deep water being found close up
to the beach. We had succeeded in hewing our way through for
approximately the past six months, so it was now up to us to avoid
every possible danger on this last stretch which was still dangerous.

278 "Ayesha"

So I decided not to sail this distance, but to anchor ofif Scherm
Munnaiburra and proceed overland to El Weg.

The authorities there had been previously notified of our coming
by messengers who had gone overland. Several gendarmes had
been sent out along the coast to meet us. One of these we picked
up at our anchorage and sent him ahead to provide camels. During
the night we could see small signal fires on the beach which showed
us that our caravan had already been assembled. We took our
guns and only sufficient provisions for one day. The remainder
we sent back, with our compliments, on the zambuk. Luckily, this
zambuk also managed to return home without sighting an enemy
ship. We arrived at El Weg in the evening of April 29.

The first thing we did here was to get thoroughly rested, also
thoroughly bathed. Here, also, we finally secured another oppor-
tunity of having our clothes washed and changed. It took two days
to prepare the caravan.

About 8 a. m., May 2, we marched out. In the north camels are
ridden differently than they are ridden in the south. Down south,
as we well knew, the camels are secured one behind the other in a
long row, while up here in the north this is not customary. Each
animal is ridden singly and must therefore be steered by its own
rider. This was difficult at first, but after a while my men grew
accustomed to it and managed to keep their beasts in hand, so that
the caravan kept together after a fashion. We were guided by the
Sheik Suleiman from El Weg.

At first we marched through the desert, sufficiently familiar to
us. But soon we came to a beautiful region. We went through
the mountains amid wonderful scenery. The water supply also
was much better than on our previous desert journeys. The wells
were more numerous, supplying drinkable, even though not quite
clean, water. Our Arabian guides had told us several days before
that we should be greatly surprised when we saw running water
on the top of the mountain. We did find the rivulet and it was
actually flowing, but the whole thing could be stopped by a man
placing both feet across the channel. As it was quite cool, we
marched in the mountains during daylight and slept by night.

As we had heretofore experienced so much danger in the desert,
we intrenched ourselves each night, to the bewilderment of the
Arabian guides. Rut we had finally reached the conclusion that no
one was to be trusted. The intrenchins: did not take long because

" Ayesha " 279

we had now provided ourselves with shovels. And so each evening-
we built a small armed camp in the desert from which pointed four
threatening machine guns. We made no watch fires in the middle
of the camp, but the sentries on outposts that circled the camp
built fires which made sufficient illumination. As usual, we slept
on our loaded arms. A camp such as this was not what you might
call comfortable. The nights were very cold. Most of us had to
give up our blankets to the sick men. But those that had no
blankets did not complain, but simply followed the old rule, i. e.,
" Lie on your back and cover yourself with your stomach."

The territory of our guide, Suleiman Pascha, did not quite reach
to El Ula, where we would arrive at the Hedschas Railroad. Close
to El Ula we would come into the territory of some other sheik who
was not on good terms with our friends, so I could not use his
camels on the last four hours of the trip through the other sheik's
territory. Under these circumstances it appeared as if we would
have to make another strenuous '' breaking-through " attempt.
Suleiman Pascha also expected something of the sort. During
the course of the day all the shiek's adherents from the surround-
ing mountains joined him in small bodies, until the caravan finally
reached a total strength of about 400 men. They certainly did
make a most picturesque sight with their long xA.rabian guns, flow-
ing brown robes and fluttering head-cloths. Although previously
to this we had intrenched for our own protection, now Suleiman
Pascha himself adopted similar protective measures for his men.
A sign that conditions here were rather unsettled. We ourselves
made similar detailed preparations. But the night passed quietly.

Now we were only one day's journey from the railroad station.
Our trail led through high mountains. There were some narrow-
passes to go through which seemed to have been especially built
for making a surprise attack. Only one camel at a time could
pass along so the caravan had to be strung out in a very long-
line and could not be maneuvered as a unit. In order to avoid a
surprise, Suleiman organized a regular reconnoitering force which
was wonderful to behold. Possibly this excellent reconnaissance
was due to no little practice along that line in the past. Small
patrols galloped ahead into each valley, collected information and
raced back again to inform the main caravan. They reported
that the wicked sheik of the next territory was, for the present,
engaged in a raid to the northward, so we could proceed un-
molested.

jSo " Ayes 11 A "

When I heard this news I decided to ride on ahead of the caravan
in order to get on the wire at El Ula as soon as possible in order
to provide for a special train and make the necessary preparations
for the accommodations for my men. A few hours of trotting
took me out of the territory of Suleiman Pascha, his two sons and
the various other worthies. We made good friends with the shiek
and his two sons, even though we could not thoroughly under-
stand each other. The greatest interest was aroused among all
three when, as we came through a mountain pass and could see the
distant houses of El Ula among the palms, I took out my binocu-
lars and endeavored to once more find a trace of a railroad line or
a telegraph wire. Binoculars had never been heard of before in
this country. Each wanted to see through them so the glasses were
passed from hand to hand, each one continuing" to turn the focus-
sing arrangement a little more. W'hat the last one managed to
see was a mystery to me. In order to impress the accompanying-
Arabs with the power of our weapons, I fired a short string from
a machine gun. much to the astonishment of Suleiman Pascha.
He did not dare to turn his head, and was much pleased when T
Ijrought down a continuous stream of stones from the clififs at
which I was aiming'. As all Arabs are exceedingly interested in
rirearms, I gave the Pascha and his two sons each a revolver and
some ammunition and T promised to send him a pair of l)inoculars
from (iermany.

As we were passing along a very high plain whose limits could
Iiardly be seen, I used this occasion to impress the sheik with the
might of (iermany. He was very astonished when I told him that
a German ship could bring the enemy under fire even at a range
much greater than the distance across this plain. Although this
was a bit overdrawn, as the plain reached from one horizon to the
other, it nevertheless created the desired impression. In regard
to the size of the guns, I told him that a camel could comfortably
gallop through inside of one.

I reached El Ula about noon and to my surprise found every-
thing already prepared. A special train awaited us, the engine
being all readv for the order to light fires. And this order was
5peedilv given. Two German gentlemen and a number of Turkish
officers had come way down there to meet us, bringing us letters
and information, and, from the German Colony in Syria, presents
of cold Ivhine wine, Sekt. ])ears and such other tast\- bits which we

" AVESHA " 281

had not had in a long time. When I tirst had to choose between
bathing or drinking wine, I chose the latter. Why suddenly
break off our pleasant habits after remaining true to them for
weeks at a time ?

A few hours later my men also rode in.

I rode out a piece to meet them, and, while being photographed
from all sides, with frying flags we made our entry into this small
town whose railroad line and waiting room gave us our first sight
of real evidences of civilization. Wonderful food, very wonderful
drinks, a short bath (of course) took up the next few hours. Then
the train started north at the unheard of speed of 30 kilometers
per hour, while we gave ourselves up to the long lost luxury of
stretching out our weary bones on the red cushions.

XI\\ Homeward IjOL'nd

During the remainder of the journey we anticipated no further
dangers. We travelled by rail via Damascus and Aleppo through
Asia Minor toward Constantinople. At two places we had to leave
the train and proceed in wagons and afoot, as the line is not com-
pleted clear through.

In the most hospitable and whole-souled manner we were every-
where received by the German population and by the Turkish
authorities. At every depot we found large crowds of people to
greet us. We were received with mvisic and waving flags and
decorated with roses, (nfts were showered into our cars. We
were provided with complete new outfits of clothing, and without
tears we discarded our old rags and their millions of co-inhabitants.
Aly men, who had heretofore not been accorded such an unusual
distinction, were invited to sit at the same table with the exalted
functionaries and high civil authorities. Many priceless gifts were
presented to us, and our baggage car, which had contained only
our munitions and our old rags, gradually began to fill up. At the
sidings, which were especially operated so as not to inconvenience
us, large swarms of Bedouins gathered, raced along beside our
cars and, whenever the train stopped, entertained us with trick
riding. Many a good glass was drained in the family circles of the
German residents.

Finally, at Aleppo, after 10 months of waiting, we received the
first news from home. Letters from our loved ones and the Iron
Cross — what more could be expected ? We received two large

282 " Ayesha "

sacks of mail so that we passed the next few days in reading the
letters from home, in studying- over the many letters and tales sent
forward to us, in sending signatures [evidently post cards] and in
consuming the supplies of cigars, chocolate, etc., contained among
our presents.

On Whitsunday, in the afternoon, our train arrived at the
station at Haidar-Pascha, the last Asiatic station on this railroad.
My men had received the long looked- for uniforms which had
been sent out, and the officers were also able to lit themselves out
m accordance with European " Kultur," to whose arms we were
.again returning.

The chief of the }^[editerranean fleet and, at the same time, chief
of the Turkish fleet. Admiral Souchon, could not be dissuaded
from coming with his staff clear to Haidar-Pascha to meet us.
j\Iy men formed hurriedly. Our flag, that would no longer wave
over us for 10 more months, was on the right wing. A few short
commands which were smartly obeyed showed that even months
of a life of privateering could not stamp out their military bearing ;
then I lowered the tip of my sword before my superior :

" I respectfully report the return of the Emderis landing force
consisting of five officers, seven petty officers and 37 men ! "

Another " Emden " Hero Returns Home'

THE ADN'ENTURE.S OE LIEUTENANT LAUTERBACH (N.WAL RESERVE^)
DURING THE PAST YEAR

Mr. Edward Lyell Fox, the noted American writer, whose book
" Behind the Scenes in War-Ridden German}' "" was of so much
assistance in explaining our position to his countrymen, was
granted the privilege of meeting Captain Lauterbach at the con-
clusion of his long journey, and to him he gave the following"
account, quoted verbatim, of his varied experiences:

" And so you would like to hear the story that escaped the reporters in
San Francisco," began Captain Lauterbach, with a pleasant chuckle as a
smile spread over his weather-beaten but still peculiarly j^oung face. " Well,
it was not as extraordinarj'' as all that — you know, at 'that time when the

' Translator's Note. — While translating the foregoing adventures of
Lieutenant von Miicke, I found the following article in the German press,
" Der Tag" (The Day), of Berlin, dated October 17. 1913. In the hopes
that it would be of interest in connection with the Ayesha yarn, the
translation is appended herewith.

" Ayesha " 283

Etnden put the finishing touches on a Russian and a French ship — I have
still lived through other things. But as Captain von Mueller knew that
the Australian cruiser Sydney was on his trail and that we would sooner
or later come to blows with her, he told me that I could not take part in
this next engagement. I had taken part in the last fight, he said, and
therefore would now have to make a place for another. The captain of
our accompanying collier had also made an urgent request to be permitted
to be present during a fight. And so there was nothing else for me to say.

" At Keeling, with a boatswain's mate and a machinist, I had to shift
over to the collier, whose captain was then transferred to the Eniden.
It was known that Captain von Mueller intended to send Lieutenant von
Miicke ashore to destroy the radio and cable stations on one of the Keeling
Islands. We were told to cruise in the neighborhood and wait for the
Emdcn. In case she did not again appear, I was to open the sealed orders
which had been given me. We hated to leave the Emden and could hardly
take our eyes off her. We waited a day. then another, three, five, ten days,
two weeks, but no signs of cur Emden. Had something gone amiss?
But — nonsense! Our Emdcn — nothing could happen to her. Some day
we would see her smoke clouds on the horizon. And so four weeks passed.
This uncertainty was unbearable, but the certainty, gradually becoming
more apparent, that the Emden was destroyed, made the coldest blood boil
in our veins. But, you know of course, that the Eniden in her final fight
filled the whole world with her fame

" Our supply of provisions was almost exhausted and we had nothing
but rice and potatoes to live on. It is indeed a hard task to actually believe
that a loving friend has passed away ! At the end of the fifth week there
seemed no use in hoping for the return of our cruiser. I cannot express
to you the deep sorrow with which we had to accept her loss. I opened
the secret orders. They directed me to proceed to the neutral Dutch
harbor of Padang on the east coast of Sumatra. Imagine our bad luck!
Just 24 hours before our arrival, the North German Lloyd steamer
Choising had left Padang and later took aboard at sea, from the Ayesha.
Lieutenant von Mucke and his party. As you know. Captain von Miicke
had, several days previously, entered Padang in the renowned Ayesha,
which was later on destroyed when they shifted to the Choising. Of
course, I did not know all this until a long time afterward. Here I lay
before the high mountains of this silly country of Padang and knew not
how to find my way through this channel, swarming with islands, into the
harbor. My charts were of little help because the positions of the danger-
ous rocks, water now washing over them, were not marked. I did not
trust to luck to get in the harbor, but took special precautions to keep
inside the three-mile limit where an enemy ship could not attack me without
violating Dutch neutrality. From out there I signalled for a pilot. And
then a huge ship appeared, heading in. A Dutchman I thought. But she
then hoisted the English colors and I could read the name on her side.
Empress of Japan. She came smoking up — as big as a mountain in com-
parison with our small collier. ' Stop ! ' she signalled. Had I disobeyed the
order, she would have rammed me. She lowered a boat and an officer

284 " Ayes HA "

came alioard declaring me and my crew to be prisoners of war. j\Iy s!ii;)
would be sunk.

" Before my eyes they sank the collier. My crew and I were taken as
prisoners to Singapore. The natives of this island city were very friendly
toward us. I had soon gained their confidence sufficiently to know that
an attempt to escape would not miscarry. But I wanted to make prepara-
tions to take my crew with me when I fled. We then began to dig a tunnel
under the wire fence that surrounded our prison-camp. We had scarcely
completed our work when the famous revolution among the natives in
Singai3ore broke out. The English blamed me for inciting the blacks
against them. I herewith declare that this blame is founded on untruths.
When the revolution had been settled, we completed our tunnel, and,
during the following night, nine of us gained our freedom. We marched
the entire night along the northwest coast. As we had $2000 among us.
we were soon able to get hold of two Malayan rowboats which took us
across the Straits to the Dutch Island. Here we found some more sea-
faring Malayans who were glad to take us for a cruise of several days
further along the east coast of Sumatra. But even here, in spite of the
hospitality of the natives, we could not linger long because we dared not
violate the Dutch rules. After a long trip through blooming tobacco fields
and cofifee plantations, through shady woods of rubber trees and endless
plains covered with ylang-ylang, we managed to get through the almost
impenetrable forest of the marshy coast regions, and finally arrived at the
green Sea of Sumatra, where Malay seamen again awaited us to carry us
across to Java and Celebes.

" A fairly large boat had been lying on the beach of Celebes for the past
seven months. It was an unreliable old thing that absorbed more water
than a thirsty sailor could, even with his advantage of being able to drink
more freety. But we took a chance and, in high spirits, stood out into the
Sulu Sea. We had nothing to steer by except a pocket compass. During
the night we consumed great quantities of matches trying to keep on the
course. This was set for the Philippine Islands. How we managed to get
safely over the Sulu Sea, God only knows I The boat danced like a nut-
shell on the heavy seas.

" Land ! On the seventh day out of Celebes we sighted land. We cer-
tainly did learn to sympathize with old Columbus and his experiences in his
day. It was Mindanao, the land of the black Moros, that now took us up
as guests. Particularly the Americans living out there showed themselves
to be very friendly. As our skins had peeled off and as we were burned
to a dark brown, it was difficult to believe that we were really of European
origin. Therefore we were considerably alarmed to hear the news that
six Moros had gone " amuk " and were roaming the country, trying to
kill off all the whites. It was later declared that they were last seen in
the same direction in the jungles through which we would have to pass
in order to reach the north coast. This was not a pleasant prospect inas-
much as we were armed with nothing but pocket knives. We kept watch
day and night until we reached our goal where we expected to meet our
small steamer. Of course, it was not there. We therefore set forth in

" Ayes HA " 285

a small sailboat for the island of Cehu, and from there we finally reached
Manila.

" Here I shipped aboard the Japanese steamer Takachi Mani for Tientsin.
I told the grinning skipper that I was a Hollander. But he did not seem
to trust my nationality and continually spoke to me in English. ' Cannot
understand ; only Dutch ! ' But this he did not understand. I was afraid
of being recognized in Shanghai, as I had frequently entered that port as
captain of a Hamburg-American liner, so I therefore cut off my beard and
mustaclie. As quickly as possible I turned my back on Shanghai and, with
two donkeys drawing my ancient Chinese wagon, proceeded into the interior
where I was concealed by a friend. Eventually I heard that an American
steamer, the Mongolia, would proceed from Shanghai to Japan. I therefore
returned to Shanghai to make proper preparations. During the night on
which the Mongolia was to sail I went aboard and reserved a cabin.
Three days later, after no adventures, I landed in Japan. Unconcernedly
and without molestation, I wandered around the country of our yellow
enemies for eight days. Then I booked passage for America via Honolulu.
And there on board I was recognized by a gentleman who had once upon
a time been a passenger on one of my Hamburg ships.

" In sufficient time I heard that the reporters and photographers of San
Francisco would be waiting for me. These were the very people whom
I wished above all things to avoid. They did not catch me."

In regard to the last part of his trip, Captain J.auterbach had
little to sa\'. He merely requested i\Ir. Fox to warn his country-
men about the horrible proceeding's going on in the dives disguised
as whiskey stores along the New York wate^'-front. A refugee
these days must travel by devious paths if he wishes to arrive
home safely and unrecognized.

Captain Lauterbach then wrote a postcard. I volunteered to
mail the letter for him. " That is addressed to an acquaintance."
he said, laug-hing up his sleeve. " He bet me two hundred pounds
that I would never return home to Germanv. He loses.""

[copyrighted]

U. S. NAA'AL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.

A COMBINED AR^IY AND NAVY WAR COLLEGE
By Colonel Wm. W. Harts, U. S. Army

The rules for morality for the individual and for the state,
although based on the same foundations, are not always equally
applicable to both. It will probably be generally agreed, however,
even by those who have not given any attention to the comparison
between these two, that self-preservation is a primal and funda-
mental principle for both, with a diiiference that will be easily
recognized. Self-preservation for the individual at¥ects only
himself ; for the state it must include also the duty of protecting
the higher interests of the many individuals composing the com-
munity, but more particularly must it include the right of
development in the future along lines that will insure for itself
the greatest stability and for its citizens the best opportunity for a
continued happy and prosperous existence.

This national duty of protecting this right of development has
in the past led to many wars between peoples, resulting from
their conflicting lines of interest. We notice recent examples in
the Balkan War, the Russo-Japanese War, the South African
War, and particularly in the present European War. It has
recently given rise to strained relations between this government
and Japan over both the land and school questions in California,
and a few years ago between the United States and England over
the Venezuelan boundary. It seems probable that if- this country
should ever be forced into a war it would be with another nation
over some such clash of vital interests, for internal causes of war
between sections or classes are at present so remote that any serious
civil war such as that of 1861, for example, seems now quite
impossible.

The deduction is thus obvious, that the only war that we can
anticipate as even reasonably possible is one with another nation.
Our peculiar geogra]ihical separation from the other nations of

288 -V Co-MBiXED Army and Navy War College

the world by wide expanse of ocean makes such a war one in which
both our army and navy must inevitably be engaged. These two
services are not, properly speaking, independent forces, notwith-
standing the wide difference in their mode of operating, but are
merely two different forms of the military power of the nation.
They are alike in organization, discipline, and purpose, but differ
in training and functions. Each is strengthened immeasurably
by the loyal cooperation of the other in times of action, and for
this reason such cooperation is an end particularly to be sought.

In all armies and navies the principal object of peace training-
is the thorough education of the individual in his duties in war
and an understanding of the confidence he may place on the sup-
])ort of his comrades in arms. This principle extends from the
lowest individual up to the largest units of command. Upon the
degree of perfection of the habits instilled by this training the
conduct of the nation's forces under the supreme test of battle
may be reasonably predicted. Such inter-reliance in performing"
its functions is, after all, the very essence of every organization,
whatever its character. It is indispensable in the military service,
where compactness and mobility are of utmost importance and
often a deciding feature. This principle of cooperation is now
well understood in the training of the component parts of both
the army and the navy of this country ; but we will look in vain if
we search for any authoritative means of enforcing the enormously
important principle of unity of command between the army and
navy themselves. It rests now only on the loyalty and devotion
to the country's needs of the officers in separate command, and
is open at any time to impairment should a case arise where
high command should fall on an over ambitious or negligent
officer, or even on one lukewarm in the eagerness with which
he performs his duties.

That this may be a very slight thread in a crisis can be shown
by several historical instances in which this reliance has failed,
and in consequence the opportunity has been lost to bring about
those positive results which an expectant nation has a right to
look forward to in time of war. While it is true that the fate of
the nation is not in the balance in every battle, it may be easily
understood that the whole strength of the nation's forces there
engaged must be available, and any failure of one part to su])])ort
another, which could be traced to faultv organization, would

A Combined Army and Navy War College 289

undoubtedly be called a defect that would require prompt cor-
rection. In both the army and the navy the methods of exerting-
their utmost force in battle is being given the earnest and incessant
attention of the best intellect in these branches, and the reports
from observers in each new war are carefully scanned to see
whether they show weaknesses of organization or material that
must be eradicated, or whether they point out better and newer
methods or more efficient weapons that will give the nation pos-
sessing them an advantage over its adversary.

We can plainly trace an evolution in the war organization of
our armies due to these compelling causes, and we can still more
easily observe the enormous change in battleships within recent
years. While all these progressive modifications are being made
within the two separate services no corresponding steps are being
taken so to coordinate the two main branches of the military
forces of the country that combined operations may be put be}'ond
the possibility of failure arising from lack of trained mutual
support.

Under the Constitution, the President is cOmmander-in-chief
of both army and navy, and thus constitutes the theoretical
unity of command necessary to single military control ; but vnider
our present custom his conimand is invariably exercised through
the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy, at once
a division of authority, the defects of which can only be obviated
by some sort of single military control. It would be unquestion-
ably too much to expect the President, in the midst of the pressure
of his diplomatic duties, his administrative functions, and his
political requirements at such an exciting time, to make his own
plans for a military campaign, even if he felt disposed to engage
in such a technical class of work. It might be said that he could
appoint a board of military men familiar with the situation who
would act as his advisers. In such a case the President would
solve only a portion of this difficulty, for the orders putting the
plan into execution would still need to be issued through the heads
of the two departments. In the possible case of any failure to
carry out such orders as were intended, arising through misunder-
standing or jealousy, there would be no one with power to set the
matter straight, particularly in the by no means impossible case
where the two department heads themselves might not be on an
entirely cordial footing.

290 A Combined Army and Navv War College

It thus happens that we have found in the past that the army
plans and the navy plans have been correlated mainly through a
common loyalty to the same cause and a patriotic desire to serve
the country for which they were fightmg. This has generally
worked well, but not always. During the Civil War there was
comparatively small opportunity for cooperation, for there were
so few combined operations. Early in the war there was much
lost effort on the Mississippi until the navy stationed in those
waters was put under the orders of General Grant. Later we see
at Fort Fisher another example of lack of mutual assistance in the
attack on that fortress. In the Spanish War, within our own
memories, we recall the lack of cordial cooperation between Gen-
eral Shaffer and Admiral Sampson, which certainly did not con-
tribute to the success of the expedition. Cannot this cooperation,
so highly desirable, be secured in a simpler and surer way ? Can-
not the officers of the two branches be so trained together that the
habit of interdependence and mutual reliance will be so confirmed
during peace that during war none of these conflicts of authority
need arise ?

Among many methods of accomplishing this end a simple and
elementary step would be to have the two war colleges combined.
The Army War College is now situated at the post of Washington
Barracks. It contains enough library room and map space to serve
both colleges for a great many years. It contains lecture rooms
and administration offices which would be ample for all combined
purposes for a long time in the future. Although it is not large
enough alone for all purposes of both war colleges, it could be
very easily supplemented by two additional buildings for those
separate functions and distinctive forms of instruction not com-
mon to both services. All of the necessities of each war college
could then be met and the central combined college be left for
those common purposes which are not now served efficiently.

Is it not therefore a reasonable suggestion that the present
Army War College building be used for the combined war college,
and that new buildings be added, one on each side, and properly
joined with it by a suitable architectural connection, these to be
occupied, respectively, by the Army General Staflf and the Navy
General Staff, with the war colleges of the two arms of the service.

The present Naval War College at Newport wall have to be
abandoned sooner or later, and perhaps turned over to the Naval

A Combined Army and Navy War College 291

Training Station, which might prove to be a very useful exchange.
In this event, all the books, charts, and equipment should be
brought to Washington for use in the new building. It is admitted
by many naval officers that Newport is a very unfortunate place
for a naval war college, although it seems ideal for certain other
naval purposes. By making the course for both army and navy
of equal length a community of interest and unity of purpose
could be included in the doctrine of both schools, so that a national
and united policy could be emphasized.

As the navy grows the needs of the Naval Training Station will
require all of the facilities at the Newport station, including the
buildings and grounds of the present war college ; and as the army
grows the present Army War College will likewise be found not
to meet all the requirements of an enlarged general stafif. Both
of these developments can be met in an ideal way by an enlarged
and combined army and navy war college. The space at the
Washington Barracks site is ample for both, the location is admir-
able, near enough to the center of Washington for convenience,
and far enough away to avoid needless interruption. Further-
more, the value of combined instruction cannot be overestimated.
The higher education of officers for superior command can in no
other way be so simply and satisfactorily coordinated with such
beneficial results to the defense of the nation.

The question of economy of instruction is purposely omitted in
this article — the avoidance of duplication of work, the desirable
concentration of all those sources of information which are alike
valuable to both services. It has seemed that the inculcation of a
common war doctrine for both services was of such paramount
importance as to be reason enough in itself for a change which,
though it may seem radical at first, still is so logical as to appeal
strongly to the practical man.

DISCUSSION
Rear Admiral Austin M. Knight, U. S. Navy, President U. S. Naval
War College. — The proposal to transfer the Naval War College from New-
port to Washington is not a new one. It has come up frequently in the
past and will doubtless continue to come up in the future. The argument
of Colonel Harts is one of many interesting and impressive arguments that
have been advanced in its support. Taken together, the arguments can
hardly fail to be convincing if we accept the view upon which they are
based as to the true mission of the war college. This view appears to he

292 A Combined Armv and Navy War College

that the college has, or should have, a share in the administrative activities
which are the ultimate expression of the principles which it aims to develop
and to teach.

In my opinion this is a mistaken conception of the mission of the college,
and one which has a tendency to obscure the true mission and to destroy
the unity of purpose with which the mission should be pursued.

As I see the missiofi of the college, it is, to educate officers in the art
of war and to train them for war command.

Its output is an output not of plans for war, but of officers fitted to
prepare such plans. It has properly no part in the administrative work of
a general staff, a division of operations, or a general board. It aims to
prepare officers for the work of these organizations, but not to share in their
work itself, except through its graduates.

I do not know that I can do better at this point than to quote a few
paragraphs from an address which I delivered to the graduating class of
the college a few months ago :

" Closely connected with the question of enlarging our present buildings
is the question whether the college is to remain here or go to Washington,
where it would be in close touch with the department, the General Board,
and the Army War College. I have steadily opposed this plan for the
very reasons which have seemed to its advocates a conclusive argument
for its adoption.

" I cannot think of the war college as benefiting by close association with
so many activities so widely different in character from itself and from each
other. It is easy, of course, to picture an institution differing entirely from
the one that we are developing here. The Army War College is such an
institution. Its work covers a wider field than ours and covers it, I am
sure, very successfully. It is a part of the General Staff and includes within
itself several important subdivisions of the staff ; as for example, the map-
making and plan-making sections and the division of intelligence. It is not
clear to me that there is any inherent justification for associating these
branches of general staff work with a war college. I think, on the con-
trary, that the tendencj^ of such association must be to draw off' attention
from the function that I insist upon as the primary and almost the only
function of a war college as such — the development of principles and the
instruction of officers in the application of these principles to practical
situations.

" The war college is already in what seems to me its proper relation to
the department and the General Board in that it trains officers for duty on
the General Board and in the division of operations, just as it trains officers
for the fleet. To give it the added function of taking part in the work of
these organizations would be hardly less a mistake than to give it a part
in the operations of the fleet.

" The question is, then, do we want a war college, or do we want an insti-
tution which is at once a war college, an office of intelligence, and a map-
making and plan-making branch of the General Board? The more I see
of the college as it exists here, and of the lines along which it is developing,
the more strongly I feel that the unity of purpose which marks its present
character is one of its most indispensable characteristics.

A Combined Army and Navy War College 293

'■ In the matter of location, I feel that we are fortunate, and in saying
this I do not forget the many inconveniences connected with residence in
Newport, where houses are not always obtainahle and rents and other
expenses are always high. These and other inconveniences sink into insig-
nificance in my mind when considered in connection with our freedom from
the social and ofificial distractions by which we would be surrounded in
Washington. We have here our own ' atmosphere ' and an atmosphere
essentially reflective.

"A factor of even greater significance is the intimate contact zvith tin-
fleet during the summer months, which is made possible by our situation
upon this magnificent sheet of deep and sheltered water — the natural and
almost inevitable rendezvous of the fleet during the summer. However
much importance may be attached to the association of the war college
with the department, the General Board, and the Army War College, the
association with the fleet is enormously more important.

" Not only have we much to learn from the fleet and the fleet from us.
but, quite apart from the material gain to be anticipated from an inter-
change of experience, is the sense of comradeship which cannot fail to come
from intimate association repeated year after year between the officers of the
college and those of the fleet. If there should ever come a time when the
college was disposed to emphasize unduly the theoretical side of its mission,
there could be no better antidote for the tendency than would be found in
the influence of the fleet. No one, I think, could claim any such effect as
this for the influences that would surround the college in Washington. I
do not say, and I do not believe, that the influences there would be narrow-
ing. But I certainly see no reason to believe that they would be broadening,
as I believe that frequent contact with the fleet is sure to be.

" A still further argument in favor of Newport as compared with Wash-
ington is connected with the matter of climate. Here the physical and
mental faculties are stimulated 365 days in the year. In Washington they
are more or less paralyzed through the three or four months of a hot and
very depressing summer."

No one can question the importance of cooperation between the army
and navy. The Naval War College believes in this whole-heartedly
and preaches it in season and out of season. It may safely be asserted that
no graduate goes out from the college without a sound indoctrination on
this subject.

But to believe in a doctrine and to teach it is one thing ; to take part in
an administrative effort to make the doctrine effective is another. The
first of these is the function of the college ; the second is the function of
the graduates of the college.

D E VE LOPMENT

THE WAR COLLEGE GROUNDS,

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[copyrighted J

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.

A PLEA FOR UNIVERSAL SERVICE
By Lieut. Commander John P. Jackson, U. S. Navy

In approaching- a subject of the nature of the one about to be
considered, so entirely foreign to our national traditions, it is first
of all necessary to demonstrate that a country like the United
States really does need a large army to insure its security against
aggression. Then we may take up the discussion as to the best
means of raising this army. It is purposed therefore in this article
to show: tirst, why we need a large army, or rather a trained
force which can be formed at short notice into an army ; second,
why our present system is totally inadequate to our needs ; third,
why the best way of acquiring such a trained force is universal
service ; and fourth, aside from any military reasons, what great
advantages to the individual and to the race universal service
would be.

Why do we need a large trained military force? Has not the
nation been taught to believe that the navy is its great bulwark
of defense? Unfortunately too many of our countrymen have
blind confidence in the navy's abiHty to keep the foreign invader
from our shores. But is this confidence justified? Let us con-
sider a few facts and investigate the conditions under which the
navy is supposed to accomplish this stupendous task. It is a mili-
tary axiom. that strategy never changes. Tactics change, weapons
and methods of using them change, but the great principles of
strategy never vary. One of the fundamental principles of
strategy is that, other things being equal, the side which brings the
greater force to bear at the decisive point wins. The theory
of concentration has always been employed by the great military
geniuses of the world. Mahan first demonstrated its equal appli-
cability to the distribution of naval forces. His writings produced
instant efifect. Previous to the publication of his works the great
naval powers had their fleets scattered all" over the world. Each

2gS A Plea for Universal Service

trained men available. The comi)vitation was made before En-
gland had increased her army to its present size. Her available
tonnage is almost unlimited, and at the present time it is safe to say
that she could land more men than Germany in the same 15 days.

Hence, with our fleet defeated or bottled up and the enemy com-
manding the sea, no miracle can prevent the arrival upon our coast
of an army of invasion of several hundred thousand highly dis-
ciplined troops. We are faced with the problem of preventing
the landing of this force, or of afifecting its annihilation before
it can be reinforced within a month by an expedition equal to the
first. What have we with which to accomplish this ? The dream
of 1,000,000 men springing to arms overnight is so absurd, and has
been so ridiculed by avithoritative writers that even the pviblic,
unversed in military matters, must realize the utter folly of such
a suggestion. Nothing, of course, can be accomplished without
organization, training, and material in abundance, represented by
years of careful preparation and unremitting effort. The conclu-
sion is obvious. In default of a navy superior to any possible
enemy, we must have an army, and not a small one at that, nor
an untrained one.

Our present army consists of about 100,000 men. If an army is
necessary at all, such a small one would be totally inadequate for
the prosecution of a great war. It would constitute a mere nucleus
of what we would need, if it was not wiped out in the first brush
with the enemy, as was England's in the opening days of the pres-
ent war. We must have many more men — four or five times as
many to start with as the regular army now numbers. Where are
they to come from? What reserves have we? Even if we did
not have trouble in obtaining recruits, but a million volunteers
came forward at the outbreak of war. they Avould be little better
than useless. The day has jjassed when personal courage and
determination alone can win against discipline and organization.
Our recruits would have to be put in training camps for six or
eight months, and by that time there might be no need for them.
Heretofore our country, in the few and small foreign wars it has
been called upon to fight, has found a voluntary system ample to
meet the emergency. The Civil War was different, but was fought
amongst ourselves, with each side equally unprepared ; and it was
two years laefore either army was brought to a state of efficiency.
What would have been the result if we had been engaged with a
first-class military power?

A Plea for Universal Service 299

The only organized bodies of men we have to supplement the
regular army are the state militias — a scant hundred thousand of
them ; and by European standards they can in no sense be called
trained or seasoned troops. Men join the militia as a sort of club
and for social reasons ; not to become soldiers. It is composed
of all classes of men, mostly unversed in military matters — too
busy to make a serious study of them, and unable to spare the
time for even rudimentary training. A few perfunctory drills a
year, maybe a week in camp, and a certain amount of practice on
the rifle range, is the extent of their training. They learn none of
the real business of a soldier. Furthermore, under the system of
electing officers, discipline is at a low ebb. An officer who depends
upon his popularity for his commission can exert no real control
over his men, nor command proper respect from those who know
he is no better fitted bv knowledge and experience to be an officer
than they are.

The mobilization of the militia for duty on the ^Mexican border
has shown up a bad condition of affairs, and yet nothing for
which the personnel of a militia can be blamed under the system.
They had not sufficient training for active service. They were
mustered in and sent to do work wnth which they were entirely
unfamiliar. Men who know nothing about the care of horses
cannot be blamed if the horses die. Officers who do not know that
men must be seasoned and acclimated before they can be sent
out on long hikes under semi-tropical suns cannot be blamed if
half their commands falls ill. Nor can those charged with the care
of material be held to account if it deteriorates and becomes worth-
less. Officers cannot instruct men in something they do not know
themselves. The only wonder is that the militia were able to exist
at all under such conditions, or that there was any sort of morale
or subordination left in the ranks after the first week.

By far the most crying need is, of course, for competent officers
who have mastered the profession of a soldier and know how to
command men. These are not created by merely putting on
shoulder straps. It cannot be expected that a man straight from
a bookkeeper's stool or a broker's office, however patriotic, can
attain overnight what others have gained in a life profession. It
seems hardly necessary to dwell upon these platitudes, and yet
there exists a persistent belief that anyone can become a soldier
by putting on a uniform and shouldering a gun. The naval
profession is not troubled by such aspirants.

300 A Plea for Universal Service

If the mobilization of the militia has taught vis anything, if
England's experience has not been wasted upon us, it is very
plain that we must train our men before they are needed — plenty
of time before — and perfect their organization. We cannot
depend upon an army of 100,000 men; and a reserve of 100,000
militia is far too small, even if it were highly trained. We cannot
seriously contemplate throwing a mob of green volunteers, hastily
gotten together at the outbreak of -war, against the machine guns
and bayonets of disciplined troops. We must provide an efficient
reserve for our regular army. We must decide upon the best
method of raising this reserve and then give it the very best pos-
sible preparation. No halfway measures should be tolerated.
They are worse than useless, and very dangerous in that they
delude the country into thinking that there is a reliable defense,
when in fact none exists. No scheme which contemplates a
month's tVaining a year can possibly accomplish anything — not
even the preliminary seasoning of the men. War is the most com-
plicated science of modern times, involving as it does the employ-
ment of practically every other science. One had much better
attempt to turn out dependable locomotive engineers or able sea-
men by a month's training.

To one unfamiliar with the conditions existing in a modern
army the amount of thorough instruction which must be given to
the individual soldier is astonishing. Trench warfare and the
development of all kinds of special weapons used in its prosecution
have introduced untold complications and rendered all previously
existing manuals of tactics obsolete. For instance, voluminous
instructions have been written upon the tactics of the hand grenade
alone, and the men are given as complete and assiduous training
in its use as they are in that of the rifle. Again, every different
type of trench — fire-trench, communication trench, parallels, saps,
and half a dozen others, are constructed according to certain
rules and fixed dimensions which must be known to every soldier.
They are laid out according to definite systems. The methods
of communication by telephone and signal, the manner of getting
food to the first line troops, of bringing up ammunition and dis-
tributing it, are things in which the troops must be well instructed.
The mere routine operation of relieving the men in the first line
is one which must be carefully worked out, to avoid losses by
hostile fire, congestion in the narrow communication trenches, and

A Plea for Universal Service 301

to i^revent whole detachments getting lost in the maze of passage-
ways. Many instances of such things happened in the early days-
of the present war.

When it comes to the really complicated problems of planning
an assault — the preparation of the terrain, the proper distribution
of the storming troops, the timing of the successive waves of rein-
forcements, the cooperation of the artillery — detailed instruction
must be given and repeated rehearsals held to prevent certain
disaster. This is only^to mention a few of the most obvious ele-
ments of a soldier's training which have been learned by actual
experience and at great cost in the armies of Europe. How can
we hope to impart the least smattering of it to raw recruits in one
month's training a year? We must not forget that ali foreign
armies are learning this, even the neutral ones, from a close study
of the actual operations. If we fail to do so while we have time,
we cannot hope to put up any sort of resistance against troops well
versed in the latest practices. Consistent work extending over a
considerable and continuous period of time is necessary to even
make a start in the right direction, and we must train the number
of men w^e will need at the opening of hostilities. If our present
system is inadequate and cannot produce results, one must be found
which will do so. In this article we are not concerned with organ-
ization, development of resources, accumulation of munitions and
equipment, and the infinite number of things which must be accom-
plished before successful mobilization can take place. These
belong properly in a treatise on preparedness. What w^e are alone
concerned with is the providing of the man power.

There are four general methods by Avhich an army can be
raised: (T) The voluntary system, (2) partial conscription, (3)
general conscription, and (4) universal service with a short term
of intensive training. Of the great powers. England, until:
recently, and America represented the voluntary system ; Russia
and Italy partial conscription ; and France and Germany general
conscription. Switzerland represents universal training. Which
method has proved the most efifective ?

Nothing is clearer than that the voluntary system failed com-
pletely in England, the only nation involved in the present struggle
which employed it, and had to be abandoned in favor of general
conscription. And so it will fail in every case where a nation is
compelled to put forth its utmost efifort. England, at least,
12

302 A Plea for Universal Service

had a navy of preponderant strength to hold back the enemy while
she trained her new armies. How England has had cause to regret
her voluntary system and how speedily she was obliged to renounce
it in a great emergency must be evident. The result of her system
made her difficulties ten times greater when she tried to raise
armies by other methods. It took England two years of strenu-
ous effort to raise her new armies. What would have happened
to France in such a predicament? Or to England herself without
her fleet to guarantee her the time she needed ? Our difficulties
will assuredly be as great as England's ; and what is fatal to us
is that we have not the necessary fleet to hold back the enemy
while we are making our preparations on shore.

Washington more than once bitterly complained of the voluntary
system, upon which he had to depend to raise his ragged armies.
In the first burst of patriotism and resentment against aggression,
carried away by excitement and enthusiasm, volunteers may flock
to the colors. But their ardor is soon cooled by discipline to which
they are not accustomed, and the hardships of an active cam-
paign. They seize the first opportunity to withdraw from the
unpleasant situation into which their impetuosity thrust them. In
our American Revolution we are told that men who volunteered
for short terms of service left the colors upon the expiration of
their enlistments, sometimes upon the very eve of battle. In the
Civil War, after the first few months, volunteers no longer rushed
forward to fill the gaps in the ranks. Before the battle of Gettys-
burg many of the state regiments had been reduced to the size of
a modern European company, because volunteers were not forth-
coming to keep them up to strength. Can a nation the size,
power and wealth of ours depend upon such an uncertain system
for its defense, when even now the War Department is experienc-
ing great difficulty in recruiting our present small army to the
modest size allowed by the last military appropriation bill ? In all
probability, to secure the increase granted by Congress, the induce-
ments will have to be made particularly alluring and the pay of the
soldier so increased that it will be found to be an expensive pro-
ceeding. In other words, the maximvnn expenditure for the mini-
mum result. And even then we would not secure what is needed.

There is, moreover, in the voluntary system of service an element
of great unfairness. The high spirited, courageous, and patriotic
sacrifice comfort, personal interests, and many of them their lives ;

A Plea for Universal Service 303

while the selfish, timid and cowardly are permitted to shirk their
duty. Military service is an obligation as incumbent upon one man
as another, and when the need arises no one should be permitted
to avoid it. It is the unfairness upon which this entire system is
founded which makes it so unacceptable, placing upon the few the
burden which should be borne by all. The nation should not take
advantage of its patriotic citizens alone, but compel the slacker
to do his share.

The second method — partial conscription — was adopted by Italy
because she could not afiford to support the financial burden of a
standing army such as was maintained by France and Germany.
She trained as great a part of her available material as her finances
permitted. It was not her choice, but her necessity, which forced
her to adopt partial conscription. Austria's case was similar. In
the case of Russia, her population was so tremendous that there
was no need of training everybody. The expense would have been
enormous, and a further consideration made itself felt in the mat-
ter of equipment, which was limited. She therefore trained enough
men to insure her an army larger than Germany's. The best that
can be said for partial conscription is that it is an expedient
resorted to by nations which, for one reason or another, cannot or
do not wish to support general conscription. It involves the same
element of unfairness as exists in voluntary service, and in a more
exaggerated form, since, at least, under that system the individual
is willing. It possesses the advantage, however, over the voluntary
system of being independent of the caprice of the individual in
securing an army of any desired size.

General conscription is, from the point of view of the seeker
after eflliciency, the only logical way to develop the full strength
of the nation. He reasons that it is absurd to leave to the whim of
the individual whether he will undergo military training or not.
Every male must be brought up in the knowledge that he owes his
services to the state, and that this takes precedence over even
family ties. He should not escape military service except by rea-
son of physical unfitness. This obligation is so thoroughly
ingrained into the people of France and Germany that their tour
of miHtary service is performed as naturally as the ordinary occu-
pations by which they earn their daily bread. When military serv-
ice becomes as much a part of the life of a nation as this, three-
fourths of its supposed hardships disappear. It is counted on, and
the nation regulates its life accordingly.

304 A Plea for Universal Service

Only in nations where this system does not exist and has not
become a part of the life of its people, is military service regarded
as an irksome and unwarranted exaction on the part of the govern-
ment, and an infringement upon the liberty of the individual. Such
is tradition and custom ! The people of nations who do not live
under the constant threat of invasion by aggressive neighbors
do not see the necessity of military service nor admit the obliga-
tion to serve. Those who do, can see the need and accept it with-
out protest. But conditions change ; science and invention bridge
space, and nations which were once remote from the turmoil of the
world's battlefields suddenly find themselves within the reach of
vast hostile armaments. Then must the traditions of the people
readjust themselves to the conditions.

The people of our country are ignorant of military science.
By nature peace loving and undesirous of aggrandizement by
foreign conquest, they cannot be convinced that other nations
may cherish sinister designs and policies which may at any time
embroil us in war — perhaps of national existence, such as is
raging in Europe. Unfamihar, also, with world politics, they
do not realize that we ourselves have certain foreign policies
which are in direct conflict with the interests of the most powerful
nations in the world. They are sure to be challenged sooner or
later, and may prove to be a convenient pretext for a declaration
of war at a moment favorable to an enemy. These policies must
be renounced or we must make ourselves strong enough to fight
for them. To cling to them without power to back them up means
disaster. To renounce them through fear or weakness, on the
other hand, means loss of prestige and humiliation. If then we
hope to preserve our national honor and the respect of the world,
to say nothing of our independence, the public must be convinced
of the need of strong naval and military establishments, and of the
revival of the obligation of military service which every individual
owes to the state to which he has sworn allegiance.

It cannot be denied that we have a pretty large contract before
us in convincing the public of the necessity of universal service,
and in demonstrating the advantages which would accrue from
the system. Ours is a government by the people, in which the
will of the people is law. No steps can be taken toward military
efficiency and an adequate defense unless the people wish it.- The
government can no more adopt compulsory military service or

A Plea for Universal Service 305

ram preparedness down the throats of the people than it can make
laws abrogating freedom of speech or forbidding- religious wor-
ship. With our traditions and temperament it will be no easy mat-
ter to persuade our people that our theories regarding armament
are quite obsolete. The old bugaboo that a large standing army
is a menace to freedom can probably be quite easily disposed of.
What will be difficult to overcome, will be the natural inertia of
public opinion, and the disinclination to depart from long estab-
lished tradition. Only a systematic campaign of education con-
ducted by organized patriotic societies through lectures, circulars
and pamphlets which will reach the masses, can succeed. When
the people demand national defense the necessary legislation will
not be long in coming.

Will it take a severe jolt such as a foreign war to arouse us
and shake antiquated notions out of our heads ? The opinion is
often heard expressed that what this country needs is a good
licking. But do those who so lightly talk in this manner stop to
think what a good licking means when administered under modern
conditions ? It might lead to the ruin of the nation, as it will to
more than one of those engaged in the present war. At the least
it will mean reduction to impotence and poverty for a generation.
And then we will only come back, if it is in us to do so, by adopting
the measures which would have prevented the ruin if taken now.
We who are alive will not have the satisfaction of seeing the
result.

General conscription and universal service may very properly
be considered almost synonymous terms. For the purpose of this
article a distinction will be drawn between them. General con-
scription as it is practiced in Europe consists in every physically
tit male citizen serving one regular enlistment in the army or navy.
With our non-militaristic ideas it is doubtful if such a system
could ever be adopted, and there is really no need for it. What
we do want is a system under which every man will receive suf-
ficient training to make him a dependable soldier in time of
need. The points of difference between such a system and gen-
eral conscription may be stated as follows : Under the latter every
individual is mustered into the regular army, and becomes a pro-
fessional soldier. He is liable for all active service for which the
army is called upon. Universal service, on the other hand, can
mean something quite different. The recruit need not be enlisted

3o6 A Plea for Universal Service

in the regular army, or subject to its peace time duties, except in
great emergencies. The regular army must be large enough to
perform these. The recruit may be allowed to take the military
training at any time he desires between the ages of eighteen and
twenty-five. Thus men will not be taken away from civil vocations
nor will courses at the universities be interrupted. The college
man can take his training after graduation ; others whenever it
is convenient, after finishing school and before starting to earn
a living. In fact, for these the training would to some extent take
the place of a college course.

The recruits, after organization into companies, battalions and
regiments, should be assembled in as large units as practicable
for such period of intensive training as is decided upon — say one
year. They should be placed under army discipline, live under
canvas, and be put through a complete course of instruction and
drill in all that concerns a solider, under the supervision of regular
army officers. Toward the close of the period of training the
entire force should be assembled for grand maneuvers such as
were formerly held in the continental armies of Europe. Mobiliza-
tion should take place on different frontiers in different years.
The general object is the coordination of separate units and the
gaining of practical experience in mobilization. The special object
is the training of the officers in handling large bodies of men, in
coordinating the method of employment of the different arms of
the service, in gaining experience in supplying a great army in the
field, and, in general, the study of the science of war, transporta-
tion, and logistics, under actual conditions.

There is no other way in which the general staff and officers
in command in the field — the brain and directing power of the
army — can gain this valuable experience. How can a general who
has never seen more than 10,000 troops assembled be expected to
handle forty or fifty times that number, as he would have to do in
war? And how can a general staff work out the infinite details
of transportation, supply and communication without some sort of
actual trial? In every other sort of enterprise instruments are
tried out in advance and organizations put to the test before they
are applied to the uses for which they are intended. And yet this
most complicated of instruments and organizations — an army —
we propose to put into use without trial of any sort. In fact, we
do not propose to create the instrument until it is time to use it.

A Plea for Universal Service

307

It is like constructing an enormous gun, infinitely larger than any
in use, and sending it out without test. Real progress and develop-
ment cannot be made in enormous bounds. Ships and guns have
gradually reached their present size. Fifteen years ago we would
not have thought of building a ship of 30,000 tons and arming it
with 18-inch guns. No nation except Germany, after years
of experiment and slow development, can even now construct a
Zeppelin. Yet if we had a war we would have to increase our
army from its present size to perhaps a million men at one stroke.
Hence the need of developing in time of peace a force somewhat
approximating what we would need in time of war and of learning
how we propose to handle it. It would be one thing for an enemy
to know that after acquiring command of the sea we possessed
no organized force to oppose his landing troops, and quite another
if he knew that he would be faced by a nation in arms. In the lat-
ter, case he would hestitate long before starting something he
might not be able to finish. It is thus that a large army would
prove our best guarantee of peace.

In connection with universal service it would be necessary to
establish schools for officers. Soldiers can be trained compara-
tively quickly compared with officers, but a very great number
of the latter are required. That has been England's greatest want
and most serious difficulty in raising her new levies. The men
were ready, but there were no officers judged competent to lead
them under fire. After the war, this will probably be found to
have been the chief factor of the great delay in launching her long
awaited offensive. The mortality amongst officers has been
enormous in all the armies — apparently far beyond w4iat was
expected — and it has not been possible to make up the losses any-
thing like quickly enough. Without brains and leadership the
war machine is impotent. We need a large number of trained
officers as a nucleus for a fighting force, even if we do not train
a single man. As it is impossible to produce officers in the year's
service required for soldiers, the necessary number of the most
promising men who have undergone the regular training should
be selected and sent to officers' schools, where they would learn
the technic and the theory upon which the practical side of war
is based.

The great difficulty experienced by those who have thus far
attempted to arouse enthusiasm in a preparedness movement has

j^oS A Plea for Universal Service

been in convincing" any particular individual that he should give
up his time while his neighbor remains at home. The only logic
in the matter seems to be that one rule should apply to all. The
laboring class must not feel that it is enlisting to fight the battles
of the rich, while the son of the banker and corporation president
is immune. The French army knows no social distinctions, and
no rank except what is attained by merit and courage. It is com-
manded by generals of peasant extraction as well as those of
aristocratic birth. Alany a titled descendant of old noble families
is serving as an ordinary " poilu," in some cases under the authority
of their former servants.

If the poor man of this country realized that in performing mih-
tarv service he would be doing what everyone was required to do,
and that he would stand shoulder to shoulder in the ranks with the
sons of the rich, in a service where advancement could only be
secured by merit, what a spirit would be created and what a weld-
ing of classes in defense of the common fatherland! In times of
national emergency it is the educated classes who respond to the call
to arms almost to a man. Noblesse obHge. It happened in England
at the outbreak of the present war. The lower classes hung back
and compelled her to adopt conscription. If we could learn a lesson
from England's experience, we would not wait until war broke
out and then sacrifice the flower of the land. Example is a potent
factor, and the less educated instinctively look to their superiors
for guidance. But the influence of example would be more felt
in time of peace, when there would be time for it to produce its
effect, than in the confusion of a sudden call. Let us then make
use of this fine spirit of the upper class which would only be wasted
if we wait until war comes.

y\side from the military necessity of possessing a dependable
reserve, the benefits of military training and discipline of the camp
to our youths would be very great. There is no use in closing our
eyes to the fact that physically the American youth does not com-
pare favorably with the average youth of countries where com-
pulsory military service exists. The average youth is not the
college boy or the graduate of Annapolis and West Point. We
are apt to consider them as representatives of the entire youth
of the country, but this is far from being so. The college athlete,
the midshipman and the West Pointer are physically the pick
of the nation — the best we have, and not at all the average.

A Plea for Universal Service 309

The countless thousands who know no university training ; who
do not know what proper physical exercise is, and have not the
faintest idea how to develop their chests and harden their muscles,
compose the average youth of the land. These, who far outnumber
college bred men, are the bookkeepers, the clerks, shopkeepers, the
factory hands, and the laboring and farming classes. Although
the lives of the latter are physically more active than the other.-,
their exercise is not of such a systematic and well directed kind as
to develop healthy physiques. As a matter of fact, it has been
stated that the city bred man in our Civil War made a tetter sol-
dier and was better able to stand the long marches and hardships
of active service than the over-fed country boy. But it was only
after months of systematic military exercise that either type was
converted into the seasoned soldier.

Our scientists have declared that the American is below par
physically, and in direct contrast with the well-developed German
soldier ; that most men and women of forty have ill-health of some
sort. Out f)f one thousand men picked from workmen of a
well-known factory, fewer than one per cent were normal, more
than sixty per cent showed signs of chronic organic disorders.
and ninety per cent had no conception that there w^as anything the
matter with them. Wrong habits of eating are said to account for
six hundred thousand preventable deaths a year in the United
States. Unless this condition of afifairs is checked it means the
decay of the American nation. It would be hard to devise a better
means of checking this decay than by universal service, in which
special attention was paid to the health of the recruit. This
could be made an essential part of the system. Besides our trained
corps of army surgeons, the most eminent members of the civilian
medical profession could be called upon to cooperate in this great
work ; and the entire youth of our country could be taught sane
methods of living and acquire proper habits of eating and taking
care of their physical beings.

The American character has also deteriorated in the last genera-
tion. We have lost the stamina and rugged vigor for which the
founders of this republic were famed. Decades of peace and
immunity from the hardships of war have weakened the spirit
and softened the fiber of the American people. Years of pros-
perity have sapped their virility in the same manner as that
of the ancient Romans. As the English were contemptuousl}

3IO A Plea for Universal Service

termed by Napoleon a nation of shopkeepers, so may we be aptly
called a nation of business men, and seekers after wealth, ease, and
pleasure. We have forgotten the ideals of our ancestors, who
fought and bled for the blessings of freedom. They appreciated
the value of that for which their great sacrifices were made, and
were ever ready to fight in its defense. Our generation, born
under these blessings, accept them as matters of course, and as the
normal state of affairs. We do not know the conditions under
which the oppressed peoples of half the world live, and on account
of which immigrants flock to our shores by the million. There is
no disposition, as of old, to fight for ideals.

What a benefit it would be to the individual and to the stock
of the race if the manhood of the country was brought up to a
higher level of physical and moral fitness ! Once taught proper
methods and having experienced the benefits or regular life and
systematic exercise, our men in the majority of cases would con-
tinue to apply what they had learned and keep themselves fit. It
would constitute a veritable revitalizing of the nation. The dis-
cipline and regularity of a soldier's life engendered by universal
training would make for better citizenship and stronger and finer
manhood. Every recruit would go forth better fitted for the voca-
tions of civil life, and better able to take his place in the civil com-
munity as a public spirited and valuable citizen.

Universal service would teach and inspire patriotism, which,
alas ! seems to be much needed in this country of ours with its
diversified individual and selfish interests. The recruit w^ould be
taught what this great country is ; what are its aims, and what
should be its destiny. He would be brought into closer relation
to the state ; he would learn the meaning of national honor and
the power of a great nation to protect its citizens wherever they
may be. His whole outlook would be broadened, and he would
realize that there was something more in the life of a nation than
his own restricted viewpoint formerly indicated. He would take
pride in his privilege to serve in the armed forces of his country ;
would desire to see her great, powerful and respected ; and through
the remainder of his life would take more intelligent interest in
her policies and foreign relations, and do his part to see that she
was wisely ruled by the best and most capable men.

While the horrors of war are so terrific, and the sorrow^ suf-
fering, destruction and waste are so incalculable, in these days of

A Plea for Universal Service 311

scientific genius and mighty resources, that no man in his right
mind can desire it; yet there can be no doubt of the invigorating
effect of war. The heroic devotion of the French people, a race
which the Germans beheved to be decadent, which has commanded
the admiration of the world, was brought out by this most terrible
of wars. It is not conceivable that anything else could have pro-
duced the same result; but that France eventually would have
lapsed into that decadence which Germany beheved was already
upon her. The views that Bernhardi and other German military
writers proclaimed, that war is the great revitalizer of the human
race, must be admitted to contain a great deal of soundness. Can-
not the beneficial effects of war be realized without its attendant
horrors ? Just as peace maneuvers are executed by our naval and
military forces to simulate the conditions of war without blood-
shed ; so there should be some substitute for war to develop the
characters of our youth and infuse spirit into them. Universal
service would go a long way towards accomplishing this.

That nation possesses the most important element of greatness
which has a race of military men. Money has been called " The
Sinews of War," but it is useless without the sinews of strong
men's arms. History has taught us that wealth undefended by
virile manhood is the undoing of nations. Greece, Rome and
Spain, each in turn fell victims to the sinews of men's arms, when
their manhood had degenerated. No state of ancient or modern
times has ever achieved greatness except through military power,
and has remained great only just so long as that military power
endured. There is as yet no indication in this war-torn world of
a coming change ; and, until the arrival of the millennium, military
power will continue to decide the fate of nations.

[coptrightedI

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MB.

OL'R NAVY AND THE WEST INDIAN PIRATES
(continued)
A DOCUMENTARY HISTORY
Bv Rear Admiral Caspar F. Goodrich, U. S. Navv

Notwithstanding all this excellent work, we read that the
schooner Shepherdess (Rufus Fink), of Warren, R. L. from
Matanzas to New Orleans, on January 31 was boarded and robbed
by a piratical open boat of 15 men. Also, that the brig Leader
( Jonas Jones), of New York, was boarded and robbed by a pirati-
cal boat of 12 men, nine miles east of Moro Castle. The crew were
shamefully treated.'

The next episode, while creditable to Stockton's energy, re-
sulted, for the time being, disastrously to him, for his prize was
not condemned and he was sued in the United States District
Court for false seizure. He lost the case and was cast in heavy
damages. On appeal, it was carried to the United States Supreme
Court, which sustained the validity of the capture : " Portuguese
ship Mariana Faliero, captured by Lieutenant R. F. Stockton, in
the United States' schooner Alligator, sent into Boston." ^

Undeterred by a few misadventures, the pirates continued their
attacks. " Piracies are still frequent ofif the coasts of Cuba ;
American and British vessels are indiscriminately robbed under
the most aggravating circumstances." '

The complaints direct and the expostulations in the public press
against piracy were not without effect in Washington, for, on
February 9. 1822, we learn that " Congress in resolutions is taking

^ American Daily Advertiser, February 28, 1822.
= ASP, I, 804; RFS, Chap. V.
' N. February 9, 1822.

314 Our Navy and the West Indian Pirates

notice of the serious state of affairs in the West Indies." * The
following shows the general feeling :

U. S. Ship " Hornet "

Hampton Roads

2 1 St Feby 1822.
.... The horrid system of piratical aggression and outrage, which has
been so long carried on by those lawless men, notwithstanding our efforts to
put a stop to it, seems to be increasing to a degree truly alarming to the
mercantile interest, and afflicting to humanity ; and yet, the authorities of
the Island from which they mostly eminate, and whose inhabitants are the
principal authors, look on with a calm, cold blooded indifference, and adopt
no measures to suppress them. It was even said publicly at Havanna that
a number of villians who were known to be engaged in the piratical system
had upon hearing of our Navy's success in destroying some of their band
avowed their future intention to spare neither the lives or property of the
Americans.

I have the honor to remain

Sir, very respectfully
Your Obt Svt.
R. Henley.
The Honble.

Smith Thompson

Secretary of the U. S. Navy.^

The result of agitating the subject is seen in the following, taken
from the report of the Committee on Naval Affairs, March 2,
1822:

The extent, however, to which the system of plunder upon the ocean is
carried on in the West India seas, and Gulf of Mexico, is truly alarming
and calls imperiously for the prompt and efficient interposition of the gen-
eral government. Some fresh instance of the Atrocity with which the
pirates infesting those seas carry on their depredations, accompanied too
by the indiscriminate massacre of the defenceless and unoffending, is
brought by almost every mail, so that the intercourse between the northern
and southern sections of the Union, by sea, is almost cut off.

The committee are induced to believe that this system of piracy is now
spreading itself to a vast extent, attracting to it the idle, vicious, and
desperate of all nations, and, more particularly, those who have heretofore
been engaged in the Slave trade, from which the vigilance of the Ameri-
can cruizers have driven them ; and that, if they are not winked at by the
authorities in the Island of Cuba, they are in no respect restrained by their
interference.

* N, February 9, 1822.
= MCL, 1822, No. 17.

Our Navy and the West Indian Pirates 315

That the sloop of war Hornet, of 18 guns; the brigs Enterprize and
Spark, of 12 guns each; and the schooners Porpoise, Grampus, Shark and
Alligator, of 12 guns each, are already cruizing in the West India Seas and
Gulf of Mexico, for the protection of trade, the suppression of piracy,
and traffic in slaves ; and that the two gunboats, Nos. 158 and 168, are also
cruizing along the coasts of Georgia and Florida for the same purposes.

Resolved, That it is expedient, forthwith, to fit out and put in service the
corvettes Cyane and John Adams, and the sloops of war Peacock and Erie,
for the protection of commerce, and the suppression of piracy in the West
India seas, and the Gulf of Mexico, and also to employ the frigate Con-
stellation, should the President of the United States deem the employment
of a frigate necessary for the purposes aforesaid.'

Nor was the government content with idle words, for we read
that " the frigate Macedonian, Captain Biddle, is about to sail from
Boston with four smaller vessels and 200 marines, with instruc-
tions, it is said, to sweep the land as well as the sea of the pirates
of Cuba." '

In the meantime, Lawrence Kearney was successfully busy at
his wonted pastime :

U. S. Brig " Enterprize," Off Cape Anton ia,
7th March, 1822.
Sir:

Our first duty has occurred at Cape Antonio, the most dangerous place
for Merchant Vessels to pass.

My vessel being disguised, this morning was passing the Cape about
7 A. M. when a twelve oared Barge was discovered in pursuit. But soon
after she made a retreat towards Mangrove Point; and as I could not pur-
sue her with success with the Brig, owing to the shoals, I ordered away
my boats.

The following note, this moment received, will inform you of the result :
" To Lieut. Comdt. Kearney,
" Sir,

" I have the pleasure to inform you that we have succeeded in capturing
four Boats and two Launches (sloop Rigged). We landed and took them
in a creek, which I have not yet satisfactorily examined. I send you a
Barge and a Cutter, and remain,

"Yours, &c.,

(Signed) Jas. M. McIntosh, Lieut."

"ASP. I, 788; NAV, No. S3. 2 et seq.
'' N, March 2. 1822.

3i6 Our Navv and the West Indian Pirates

A guard of AJarines is sent to assist the party to apprehend the Pirates

<on shore

I am, very respectfully, &c.,

L. Kearnev.
Com. Patterson,
New Orleans/

A newspaper of a few weeks later gives us this account :

^^'e have a report which appears to be true, that on the 8th ult- the U. S.
brig Enterprise, lieut. Kearney, captured eight sail of piratical vessels, whose
united crews amounted to about i6o men. This must be pretty nearly a fin-
ishing stroke to the desperadoes : we have not latelj heard of so many
piratical acts, but cases are just published which hap'pened in December
last, in the capture of the brig Exertion, and schooner Constifuti&n, of
Boston, that have caused no little feeling. The vessels thai seised them were
partly maujied by the 21 wretches who were recently tried and condemned
as pirates at Nezv Orleans, and pardoned by the president of the United
States — they boasted of it ; and, in thirty days from the time of their libera-
tion, were at their old trade, with a resolution to murder all their prisoners —
but instead of this, they were so htunane as to put their prisoners- ashore
on a low sand key, to perish for want of water or to be swept away by the
sea."

About this time a large barge was taken by the gunboat
Revenge, under Lieutenant G. W. Hamersly, at some point in the
West Indies, not specified, probably near the Balize. She was-
evidentiy fitted for piratical purposes, a fact which was substan-
tiated by her desertion by her crew."

On INIarch 22, we have a record that the sloop Jay, Thompson,,
of New York, was boarded near Neuvitas and robbed of her wiiole
cargo. Fortunately, however, the vessel and crew were saved."^

About this time the Cuban authorities were aroused to the neces-
sity of putting a stop to the depredations on foreign shipping from
a base on Cuban soil, for we read that a descent was made by them
upon the Cape Antonio gang, in which a number of the latter were
killed and wounded. The captain and lieutenant of one gang,
being seized, were tried, convicted, and shot. Another raid
'resulted in the kilHng of six pirates and the taking of 15 prisoners.
It appears that some goods from a Boston schooner led to the
inculpation of five persons who Avere sent to prison. They are

'C. L., 1822, Vol. 4, No. 58. Other authorities are: S. O. (M. C. L.)
Vol. CXVIII, No. 90; 17C-2S, Sen. Doc. i, 56; ASP. I. 804; E. 76: M. II.
28; NE. 547; RSN, 1822.

» N, April 6. 1822.

'" RSN, 1822.

" MWIIP.

Our Navy and the West Indian Pirates 317

stated to have been young men of good appearance and residents
of Havana. This last remark is proof, if proof were needed, that
piracy was encouraged by even respectable people in that island/'

The instance spoken of is among the very few in which Spanish
■officials attempted to suppress piracy. There can be no doubt that
too many of those gentlemen were directly or indirectly interested
in its successful prosecution.

The next reference, although textually quoted, doubtless refers
to our revenue marine: " April 8, 1822. — ^Two of the U. S. cut-
ters captured a piratical schooner called the Pilot, after an action
of 15 minutes." ^"

On April 29, the Alligator, under command of Lieutenant W.
W. McKean, captured the Columbian privateer schooner Cicncqa.
of five guns and 30 men, and sent her for adjudication to the
United States."

Among the duties which fell to Captain Biddle, now in command
of the West Indian squadron, was that of securing the cooperation
of the local authorities in the suppression of piracy. For this pur-
]iose, he proceeded to Havana on the 30th of April, and addressed
the following letter to the governor and captain general :

U. S. Frigati-: " Macedonian,"' Havana,

April 30, 1822.
Sir :

I have the honor to represent, that tlie commercial relations between the
United States and Cuba are already very considerable, and that they would
unquestionably be more considerable if rendered more secure from unlaw-
ful depredations. As these relations, too, are mutually beneficial, it is
important to both parties that they should be effectually protected. For this
object, the Government of the United States, on its part, has emploj^ed an
adequate naval force, which is placed under my direction and control. But
as the depredations have been committed chiefly in open boats, immediately
upon the coast and off the harbors, it is important that we should have
your excellency's co-operation. I have therefore the honor to propose that
your excellency should so far co-operate with me as to sanction the landing,
upon the coast of Cuba, of our boats and men, when in pursuit of pirates.
This measure would be promotive of our common benefit, is indispensable
to the entire suppression of piracy, and is not intended in any manner to
infringe upon the territorial rights of your excellency. It will operate
against those only whose atrocious crimes render them obnoxious to every

" N, March 23, 1822.

''MWHP.

" E, 76.

3i8 Our Navy and the West Indian Pirath;s

regular Government, and should place them without the protection of
all law.

I have the honor to be, with great consideration and respect,
Your excellency's most obedient and very humble servant,

James Biddle.
His Excellency Don Nicholas Mahy,

Captain General and Governor of Cuba, Havana."

To the above, the captain general sent a reply, of which the
following- is a translation :

Havana, May 2, 1822.

I am too sensible of the importance of the commercial relations which
exist, and may continue, between the ports of this island and those of the
United States, which I am desirous of cultivating, not to have adopted
measures to put a stop to depredations which might obstruct them along
the extensive coasts of this island under my jurisdiction. I repeat, that
uch measures have been adopted, and have been made public, and, with
the zealous co-operation with which you inform me you are charged, we
shall doubtless effect shortly a happy extermination of those enemies who,
under all colors, have laid waste and committed robberies, both upon the
high seas and every coast, without respecting any flag.

With respect to the permission you solicit for landing upon this coast
with troops and people in boats, for the purpose of pursuing those pirates.
I cannot and must not consent to it. I repeat, that the necessary measures
have been adopted to defend my territorial jurisdiction, and for the appre-
hension of every description of outlaws.

All which I communicate in answer to 3'our official letter of yesterday.

God preserve you many years.

Nicholas Mahy
Captain General of the Island of Cuba.
James Biddle, Esq., commanding U. S. ship Macedonians^

That the protection of the Spanish authorities w^as of little
avail may be known from the fact that Captain Thomas Brownell,
of the brig Marcia, from Providence, R. I., beat off, in Havana
harbor, under the very nose of the captain general, boats which
tried to board his vessel on the 30th of April." This must have
been immediately prior to the arrival in that port of Captain Bid-
dle on board of the Macedonian. One wonders why this fact
was not made use of by Captain Biddle in his ofificial communica-
tion addressed to that distinguished officer.

The chartered schooner Jane was placed under the command
of Lieutenant R. F. Stockton, with 60 men from the Alligator and

"ASP, I, 805: NAV. No. 2, 61.
'* ASP, I, 805.

" ■?

Our Navy and the West Indian Pirates 319

the Grampus. In the neighborhood of Sugar Key, on the ist of
May. Stockton seized three schooners, one of them armed with
two guns, which was boarded and burnt by Acting Sailing Master
Barney. The second, with a full cargo taken from the English
brig Cherub, was released. The third was chased on shore, the
pirates escaping."

Contemporaneous newspapers quote from the log-book of the
Belvidera:

"2d May, spoke the U. S. schooner Alligator, lieut. Stockton, off Sugar
Key (cuba) ; was informed that they had burnt one schooner and taken
another, and a sloop, from the pirates, besides an English brig, the captain
and mate of which the freebooters hanged. The Alligator has also retaken
the Colombian schooner Senega from the crew, who had mutinied and run
away with her." When the Belvidera parted with the Alligator, captain
Stockton was in-shore with 70 men from the Grampus and Alligator, on
board of a schooner of an easy draft of water, and they were exchanging
shots with a piratical schooner manned by 70 men. From her position it
was considered doubtful whether the pirate could be carried. The famous

Lafitte was among them. Captain Stockton had taken no prisoners

This shews that our officers and seamen are very active — but it proves,
also, that they must have the sanction of government to enter the country
in pursuit of the miscreants."

The newspaper account of the above-mentioned incident is
interesting in itself and supplies some details not contained in the
official report. It will be noticed that the Columbian privateer is
herein* called " Cienega " :

The U. S. schooner Alligator, lieut. com. Stockton, has arrived at Charles-
ton from an active cruise in the West India seas, especially on the coast of
Cuba, after pirates. Lieut. S. recovered several vessels from the possession
of these wretches, and rescued some prisoners from their murderous hands,
but made no prisoners — the pirates keeping close to the shore, and always
being on the alert to escape.

The account of the cruise of this vessel, (for a while in company with
the U. S. schooner Grampus, lieut. com. Gregory) is highly interesting—
but we have not room to give it now. There is no sort of doubt but that
the pirates are encouraged and protected by certain of the authorities in
Cuba, especially by the governor of Holguin, with whom a correspondence
was held which will probably be published. Plundered goods were publicly
brought in and sold at Xibara, and lieut. Stockton was hardly restrained,
by his positive instructions, from settling the account with the commandant
and people of that place.

It appears that the famous Lafitte is at the head of some of those parties —
that their business is increasing — that they often murder whole crews, and

"E, 76.

" N, June 22, 1822.

320 Our Navy and the West Indian Pirates

that some strong act of justice, after the manner of Jackso)i. must be com-
mitted to suppress these dreadful villanies, to which there seem to be par-
ties throughout the island of Cuba.

The Alligator has brought in two prizes, one the Colombian privateer
schr. called the Cienega, mounting i long 12 and 4 carronades, the crew of
which had mutinied at Ragged Island,^ and was taken by the A. ofif Neu-
vitas, without any commission on board ; the other a sloop, found in the
neighborhood of the pirates at sea, with only a dog on board, and marks
of blood on her deck."

The correspondence of Captain Biddle at this time indicates
the inefficiency of the measures referred to by the captain general
of Cuba in his reply, under date of May 2, to Biddle's official
communication.

United States Frigate " Macedonian,"

Havana, ]\Iay 6, 1822.
Sir: ,

.... On the 29th I had an interview with the Captain General relative
to the business with which I am charged by Mr. Adams, the Secretary of
State. On the 30th I addressed a communication to him upon the subject
of landing our boats and men upon the Coast of Cuba, when in pursuit of
pirates. I enclose a copy of my communication, as also of the Captain
General's answer; and you will perceive he declines acceding to the proposi-
tion I made to him. I think it preferable to pursue one object at a time
with the government here, and I shall therefore drop this subject for the
present, renewing it when my correspondence in regard to the Florida
documents is terminated. He certainly ought, and perhaps will, consent to
our landing upon those parts of the Coast that are uninhabited and where,
tho' within his jurisdiction, he is utterly incapable of exercising any
authority. There are many such places on the coast of this island.

The measures adopted by the Captain General, and to which he refers
in his letter to me, consist simply of a proclamation in March last establish-
ing certain regulations with respect to the clearances of coasting vessels,
launches and other boats. These regulations, I understand, are not strictly
enforced, and even if they were, they are altogether insufficient for the sup-
pression of piracy along the extensive coast of Cuba. As the proclamation
lias been published in the American Newspapers, I do not think it necessary

to send you a copy.

*********

I have the honor to be.

Very respectfullj'.

Your most obedient St..

James Biddle.
Hon. Smith Thompson,

Secretary of the Navy."

■" In the Bahamas.

='X. June I, 1822.

--C. L., 1822, Vol. 4, No. 79.

Our Navy and the West Indian Pirates 321

Salt Key, or Cay Sal, some no miles east-northeast of Havana,
about this time was obtaining" a questionable notoriety, for, on
May 15, the brig- Aiirilla^^ from Baltimore to New Orleans, was
plundered in this locality, and her people maltreated. Also, the
brigs Busy, of Warren, Fair Trade, of Boston, and Hiram, of
Newport, arriving at Havana on May 18, reported that they had all
been captured on the 15th instant ofif Salt Key by two piratical
schooners, receiving the same treatment as the brig Aurilla,
besides having two men impressed out of the Busy!'*

In June, the schooner Shark, Lieutenant M. C. Perry, accom-
panied by the Grampus, Lieutenant F. H. Gregory, captured the
pirate ship Bandara D'Sangare and a schooner. Three prisoners
were taken and the vessels were sent to the United States.""

An interesting side light on the intimate relations which existed
between the pirates and the people on shore is found in the
" Atrocities of the Pirates," in which Aaron Smith relates his
experiences when forcibly detained by a Cuban pirate in 1822, and
made to serve as navigator. His story amply justifies the title of
his memoir. The following are a few extracts :

At two o'clock in the afternoon, I perceived a number of boats and canoes
pulling towards the corsair; and the Captain told me that he expected a
great deal of company from the shore, and, among others, two or three
magistrates and their families, and .some priests, observing also that I should
see several pretty Spanish girls. I remarked, that I wondered he was not
afraid of the magistrates. He laughed, and said I did not know the Spanish
character. Presents of coffee and other little things, said he, will always
ensure their friendship ; and from them I receive intelligence of all that
occurs at the Havannah, and know every hostile measure time enough to
guard against it. Two magistrates, a priest, and several ladies and gentle-
men now came on board, and were received in great pomp by the captain,
whom they congratulated on his success.

*********

Can it be a matter of surprise that these miscreants have committed their
lawless depredations for so long a time, and with such impunity, when the
very men whose duty it was to extirpate them, were daily encouraging them ;
when the pirate could boast that the magistrate was his friend, and receive,
in the face of all the laws of his country, and of nations, such proofs of his
friendship, as to be enabled to thwart all hostile measures adopted against
him? European nations may send out their crusades against them; but
while the execution of the laws is placed in such hands; while the pirates

^' Vide Introduction, p. 13.
" N, June 22, 1822.

^' E, 76 and RSN, 1822. A graphic account of a survivor may be found in
WFL, 229-239.

322 Our Navy and the West Indian Pirates

plunder, and the magistrates and his myrmidons share; all their efforts will
be vain ; and like the Hydra, when they destroy one head, a fresh one will
supply its place.

During the month of August but three captures by pirates are
reported. They are :

August 9— The schooner Coquette, Souther, of Georgetown, D. C, and
schooner Eugene, Coffin, of Boston, were plundered by the brig Palmyra.^

The schooner Mentor, Harrison, of Philadelphia, was taken by pirates
and robbed. The crew were cruelly treated. Vessel given up.^

The schooner Bee, Jones, of Charleston, was taken by pirates, near St.
John's, Cuba.^'

The details of this last case came out two years later in the trial
of one of the pirates connected with it :

Trial for Piracy — Yesterday, Josef Perez, the Spaniard, a sketch of
whose case we gave on Wednesday, was arraigned before the Hon. Smith
Thompson, in the Circuit Court of the United States, for piracy. The
prisoner had been put on his trial at a former court, but the jury not agree-
ing upon a verdict, were discharged; afterwards, by the Supreme Court,
he was ordered to be tried by another jury, and was accordingly arraigned
a second time, yesterday forenoon.

The indictment charged him with committing the crime ot piracy off the
Island of Cuba, in the month of August, 1822, on board the schooner called
the Bee, of Charleston, Capt. Johnson. This vessel was bound from Charles-
ton to St. Jean de Remedie, and when within a few miles of her destined
port, was brought to by a piratical schooner, boarded, taken possession of,
and then the pirate schooner was hauled along side of the Bee, and they
commenced robbing her of her cargo. After taking the trunks, one of
which contained a number of watches belonging to a passenger, wearing
apparel, and such other articles of value as they could find in the cabin, they
proceeded to break open the hatches and take on board of their schooner,
such parts of the cargo as they pleased. They kept possession of the Bee
nine days, during which time they took some of the cargo on shore and sold
it. They compelled capt. Johnson and his crew to throw the ballast out of
the hold of the piratical schooner to make room to receive the cargo of the
Bee, and beat him with a rope's end when he did not work to suit them.
At one time they beat him with a cutlass. To frighten the cook and make
him disclose something relative to the property on board the Bee, Perez
was in the act of cutting the peak halyards to hang him up, but was ordered
to desist by one of their crew. At length they concluded to set captain
Johnson, the passenger, and his crew, all except a man by the name of
Debow, adrift in an old leaky boat which they had taken from some fisher-
men on shore, and burn the schooner Bee, which they did. After being thus
exposed for five days, in an open boat, with one whole and one broken oar,
they reached Matanzas where they separated, and Porter, one of the crew,

=» MWHP.

Our Navy and the \\'kst I-xdian Pirates 323

went to Nassau, (New Providence), where he saw Debow and three of the
piratical crew who had robbed them, prisoners, on board the British sloop
of war Tyne. From Nassau he came to New York. As he was walking up
Broadway, the very day he landed, he met the prisoner and instantly recog-
nized him, seized him & immediately took him to the Police office to make
good his charges against him. On the statement he was fully committed
for trial. In the meantime Cap. Johnson arrived, and both he and Porter
appeared before the Court and Jury, and gave such a consistent and con-
vincing account of the prisoner's guilt, in being concerned in the crime of
Piracy on board the Bee, that, after many hours spent in the investigation
of facts, the jury, to whom the cause was committed at half past 9, P. M.
returned in less than an hour, with a verdict of Guilty."

Perez was promptly sentenced to be hanged,"* but as promptly
released from confinement and encouraged to continue his dirty
work. " The President of the United States has, according to cus-
tom, granted a pardon to Jose Perez." '"

The capture on the i6th of August of the piratical brig Palmyra,
formerly the Pancheta, nine guns, 83 men, is especially worthy of
note for certain consequences that followed her seizure. After
a short action, she surrendered, having lost one man killed and
six wounded. She was sent to Charleston.'" The following is the
official report by Lieutenant Gregory to Captain Biddle :

U. S. ScHooxER " Grampus," St. Thomas,
August 24, 1822.
I have the honor to acquaint you, for the information of the honorable
Secretary of the Navy, that I arrived at St. Bartholomew on the 2d of
August, and sailed again on the 7th, with convoy for St. Thomas. On the
morning of the 9th, fell in with two Spanish cruisers of Tortola, who
demanded permission, and claimed a right, to board the convoy, which being
peremptorily refused, they hauled off. The same day I arrived at St.
Thomas, and received from Captain John Souther, of the schooner Coquette,
of Georgetown, D. C. the enclosed deposition, having been plundered by
those vessels. On the 14th I left St. Thomas with two valuable vessels
bound to Curagoa, and on the evening of the 15th saw an hermaphrodite
brig hovering upon our weather quarter, apparently a cruiser ; continued
my course without regarding her ; at daylight made her ahead, and gave
chase ; at half-past nine, having gained considerably upon her, she hoisted
English colors, changed them to Spanish at ten and fired a gun to windward,
and at half-past ten hove to and set a white flag at the fore. On nearing
her I perceived her to be the pirate that had fired upon and plundered the
Coquette, and therefore considered it my duty to arrest her. At twenty
minutes past eleven the Grampus was laid under her lee, within pistol shot,

"NEP, April 30, 1824.

^ NEP, Mav 3, 1824.
™ NEP, June 4, 1824.
'"E, 76 and MWHP.

324 Our Xavy and the West Indian Pirates

and her surrender demanded as a pirate, which she affected not to under-
stand, and answered me to that import. While repeating the demand, he
poured into us a full volley from his small arms, and cannon, which was
instantly returned, and continued three minutes and a half, when he struck
his colors, a complete wreck, having one man killed and six wounded, and in
a sinking condition. The boats were despatched instantly to their relief,
and it was only owing to the great exertions of Lieutenant Voorhies that
she was prevented from going down, having received three shot between
wind and water, one of which injured the pumps. The Grampus received
some trifling injury in her sails and rigging, but not a man hurt.

The captured vessel proved to be the notorious privateer Palmyra,
formerly the Pancheta, from Porto Rico; carries one long brass i8 and
eight i8 pound carronades, and a crew of eighty-eight men. They acknowl-
edged the robbery of the Coquette, and the only excuse given by the officer,
is, that they could not prevent those things happening now and then. Sev-
eral of the plundered articles were found on board."

=\\SP. II. 193-

[cofyriohted]

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.

THE UPPER YANGTSE RIVER
By Lieutenant A. F. Carter. U. S. Navy

Believing- that the upper Yangtse River (that is to say the river
above Ichang-) is little known to the service, and that the condi-
tions therein differ somewhat from those of other waters in which
our vessels have cruised and with which the average officer is
familiar, an attempt will be made to narrate some of our experi-
ences and indicate the conditions encountered in those waters.
Steam vessels, mostly gunboats, have been navigating the upper
Yangtse since 1898, and a number of interesting books, containing
useful navigational data, have been written. Should one desire to
go into such details these may be consulted, but this article will
deal only with impressions gained during less than two years in the
upper Yangtse and the methods which have been found most useful
in handling steam vessels.

The river from Ichang to its mouth courses through a great
alluvial plain, and its perils consist largely of silt banks and shift-
ing channels. Starting up river from here there is an abrupt
change. One-half hour after getting underway at Ichang and
standing up river the steamer makes almost a complete right angle
turn, and enters the Ichang Gorge. The cultivated slopes, the silt
shoals and the high earthen banks (or levees) of the lower river
are, indeed, a decided contrast to the deep gorge with precipitate
rocky sides rising several hundred feet on both sides of the river.
It all comes so suddenly and the scenery is so entirely different
from ^hat which one sees on the lower river that doubtless few
travelers really begin to appreciate the beauty of the Ichang Gorge
before its several miles have been traversed and the Lampshire
Gorge has been entered. When one first enters the Yangtse gorges
the water appears peaceful and smooth, and there is really little
to indicate the difficulties which await a steamer onlv a few hours

326 The Upper Yangtse River

farther up. As a vessel proceeds through the first two gorges the
gradual increase in current strength is quite noticeable.

Finally the Wu-i-tan. a rapid of the second or third order,
depending upon the water level, is reached and your vessel has a go
at her first rapid.

This rapid is of little importance, and lies between Heng-shih-tse on one
side and Cha-pou on the other. Having gotten through this without diffi-
culty, the vessel enters a winding rocky stretch of water known to the natives
as Yao-tsa-ho. Of all the bad places in the upper Yangtse, there is prob-
ably none worse all the year round than this. The currents are strong at
all water levels, and throughout its 14 miles of length it is always a source
of danger to both junks and steamers. Here the river widens out arid is
flanked on both sides by great irregular masses of rock, some solid, some
just great banks of large boulders, and others of small rocks. Huge rocks
and boulder banks abound in the river itself, and from some of the shore
rocks long irregular ribs extend out into the swift-running stream, causing
violent swirls and very strong currents. At low water the channel is
irregular and full of sharp turns, while at high water this portion of the
river becomes a mass of dangerous swirls and whirlpools, caused by the
strong down-coming water striking the irregular rock formations and
bounding off at varying angles.

At the head of Yao-tsa-ho is the Kung-ling-tan — " tan " being the term
applied by the natives to all rapids. In winter this is one of the impassable
places ; not so much on account of the strength of the current as on account
of the shoal and tortuous channel. With an Ichang watermark of seven
feet or more it may be navigated with safety. With less than that it is
dangerous. According to all information obtainable, only one vessel, the
German S. S. Suihsiang, has attempted to navigate this rapid during low
water. She left Ichang on the morning of December 27, 1900, bound up
river on her maiden trip. About 11 a. m. she struck one of the so-called
" pearls " of the Kung-ling-tan, and in less than an hour she was a total
wreck. No doubt a comparatively small amount of money wisely spent
could remove the worst dangers at this place, and make it at least no
worse than many others which are navigated at low water with a fair
margin of safety.

Looking up river from the head of the Kung-ling-tan one sees less than
half a mile away the stately entrance to the Niu-kan, Ma-fei-hsia. or Ox
Liver, Horse Lung Gorge ; so called on account of certain formations on
the cliffs bearing, to the imaginative Chinaman's mind, some resemblance
to these internal organs of the animals named. This gorge is about four
miles long, and is one of the prettiest in the river.

At the upper end of this gorge is the Tching-tan, or New Rapid. About
300 years ago, as nearly as can be ascertained, an enormous amount of rock
broke loose from the mountain on the right bank and slid into the river,
partly blocking its flow and forming the Tching-tan. At high and middle
water this rapid disappears, but at low water there are three distinct rapids.
Of these the uppermost one is by far the worst. With the Ichang water-

The Upper Yangtsk River 327

mark at or near zero this upper rapid is impassable for anything except
junks controlled by numerous lines and in the hands of experienced pilots.

Passing the Tching-tan, the Mitan Gorge, generally known as Ping-so-
bao-jen Gorge, is entered. This gorge is only about one and one-half
miles long, and due to the depth of the water a fairly slow current is
encountered, except at high water. Above the Mitan Gorge the river widens
and the currents become more troublesome. Particularly troublesome is
that stretch of water generally known as the Kwei-chow Reach. This is
very bad at low water, and troublesome at high levels on account of the
numerous swirls. It embraces the very narrow passage of Whong-tsien
and the turbulent races of Se-chi-tang, Ho-san-tan. Fong-tan and Lien-
ho-tan. where the fairways are narrow and dangerous, and the danger of
collision with downward bound junks is great. Strong water is encountered
the greater portion of the distance between here and the Yetan.

The Yetan is the strongest rapid on the river. The approach,
except when the rapid is at its worst, is not so difficult ; but the
current is very strong throughout a considerable rise and fall of
the river. It is probably at its worst with an Ichang watermark
of about 12 to 18 feet and river rising. The rapid was in this con-
dition in May, 191 5, when the Monocacy was on her way down
river. While still a mile above the rapid it could be plainly
observed, and some time before reaching it the roar of the rush-
ing water could be heard. Just before entering the rapid full
speed was rung up, so as to give all possible assistance to the rud-
ders, and we entered the strong water steering carefully for the
center of the tongue. The vessel passed through the swiftest
part of the rapid at almost incredible speed, probably not less
than 26 knots over the ground. The drop over the rapid was
very noticeable, and when the little Monocacy dove into the
" chow " water below the decrease in speed was so pronounced
that it seemed as though she had suddenly stopped.

Yetan is caused by an immense boulder bank extending out from the left
bank more than halfway across the river. When this bank is just under
cover the navigation for junks is very dangerous. At high water no rapid
exists at Yetan.

About four and one-half miles above Yetan full speed is again required
for a few minutes in order to steam the Ta-pa-tau-tan. About one and
one-quarter miles above Ta-pa-tau-tan the Niu-kou-tan is encountered.
The reach of water between Chong-shih-men and Niu-kou-tan is one of the
most turbulerat in the river at high water, and is rendered particularly dan-
gerous at such times on account of the difficulties incident to downward
bound junk traffic.

Niu-Kou-tan, like Yetan. is caused by a large boulder bank
extending out from the left bank. If entered on the right or south

328 The Upper Yangtse River

side of the river by an ascending steamer of 13 knots speed Niu-
kou-tan oft'ers no special difficulties at most water levels.. In
October, 1914, when the Monocacy was bound up river, the pilot
elected to enter the rapid from the left or north bank side. The
boulder bank here extends out in such a manner that as a steamer
comes up to the rapid point at full speed it must enter the rapid
with a violent current on the bow. The result, naturally, is a literal
submersion of all the forward portion of the main deck, with sheets
of water thrown onto the upper deck and the bridge. The Monoc-
acy on this occasion buried herself to such an extent that the
forecastle was entirely under water, and for an appreciable time
only the tops of the anchor engine and capstan were visible. As
will be shown later, entering a rapid at such an angle is an
extremely hazardous proceeding, and should not be done when
avoidable.

From Niu-kou-tan to the entrance of the Wushan Gorge the river pre-
sents some excellent views, and although the currents are strong with a
few lesser rapids, no particular navigational difficulties are encountered.
The Tsing-chu-piao rapid, about one mile above Patung. is quite a strong
rapid, and is difficult during low water. Except in high water and with
river rising rapidly at mean water, the current in the Wushan Gorge is not
strong, and the ordinary conditions for an up-bound steamer are very
favorable. The Wushan Gorge is about 28 miles long. The cliffs on both
sides are high, ranging on the average perhaps about 1000 feet above river
level. In some places this gorge is probably not over 150 yards wide. The
view as one passes through is magnificent.

At the upper end of the Wushan Gorge is the city of Wushan, built on
a slope well above the river level, and surrounded by the familiar type of
Chinese wall. Between this place and Kwei-chou-fu are a number of rapids,
but of these the most important are Hsia-ma-tan ( or " Get down from horse
rapid") and the Pao-tse-tan.

The Hsia-ma-tan is another rapid which is formed by a boulder bank
projecting out from the left or north bank of the river. The bank is
apparently caused by rocks, sand, etc., which are washed down from the hills
by a small mountain stream entering the river just above it. Up the ravine
caused by this stream is a remarkable old cave known as Old Dragon
Cave. The story goes that all mounted men should alight at this place
and do homage to the presiding genius in the cavern ; hence the name of
the rapid. The rapid is worst at low water. The writer has never experi-
enced an}-- difficulty here. At high water the rapid disappears.

The Pao-tse-tan. however, is a different proposition. It is
formed by a rocky bank on the right and a boulder 'bank on the
left bank of the river. At all stages of the water, except dead
low water, thi^ r.qiid exists, Intt it is worst at middle water and

The Upper Yangtse River 329

mean high water. It is rendered all the!* more dangerous by its
unusually difficult approach. For some distance below it (varying
in intensity according to the height of the water and the strength
of the rapid) is a bay of swirls and whirlpools. Great care must
be exercised in making the approach. Much difficulty is experi-
enced in keeping a vessel on even an approximate heading, for the
swirls throw her violently first to one side and then the other. It
is at such places as this that the wisdom of fitting four power-
ful rudders to a vessel of the Monocacy's class is emphasized.

In October, 1914, the Monocacy found this rapid by far the most
difficult between Ichang and Chungking. The watermark at
Ichang upon departure was about 25 feet. On approaching
Pao-tse-tan violent swirls were encovmtered, and although the
vessel was steaming at top speed, we were obliged to give her prac-
tically full rudder first one way and then the other. Finally the
rapid was reached and entered from the left bank side well up
above the end of the tongue. Both engines were forced to their
utmost, and although they actually made 360 R.P.M. (their
■designed R.P.M. is 300) we lost ground slowly for a few moments.
Finally we made the top of the rapid and had just begun to forge
steadily ahead when the working of the port engine telegraph indi-
cated something wrong. The danger being past, that engine was
stopped, and an investigation showed that a small rock had b^en
taken in through the port circulating pump suction and had
jammed the rotar of the pump. Had this accident occurred one-
half minute earlier it is hard to predict what the outcome might
have been. Fortunately, the auxiliary exhaust had been, as a mat-
ter of caution, opened into both condensers. Had it been on the
port condenser alone (as it had been earlier in the trip), steering
engine, feed pumps, and all other auxiliaries would have been ren-
dered inoperative almost immediately. A rather nerve-racking
experience of the same character had previously demonstrated to
us the wisdom of such a precaution.

Having passed Pao-tse-tan one breathes a sigh of reHef, for unless the
river is fresheting there are no first magnitude rapids to be encountered
for many miles. About five and one-half miles above Pao-tse-tan the
Bellow^'s Gorge opens into view, and soon the vessel enters this grandest
of the Yangtse gorges. The cliffs rise sheer out of the water to a height
of 700 feet, while not one-half mile back, on the left bank, the peaks are
said to be more than 4500 feet high. The view on entering the gorge from
either end is one of the most magnificent obtainable in the river. The

330 The Upper Yangtse River

water in the gorge is deef), and the navigation, except at high water and
when the river is fresheting, is comparatively simple. During high water
the Black Rock Rapid is bad, especially so for junks. Near the western
entrance there are bad swirls and whirlpools at high water, and many junks
come to grief in this locality. In fact, this gorge, like the others, is ren-
dered dangerous if the river rises abnormally, for then the swirls become
very violent. The reasons for this will be given later.

As an up-bound vessel nears the western entrance to Bellows
Gorge a number of chiseled holes may be seen on the port hand
in the side of a perpendicular cliff rising probably not less than
500 feet out of the river. The Chinese say that sometime about the
third century, A. D., a war existed between the ruling authorities
above and below the gorges. The invaders came up by river to
attack Kwei-chou-fu, the city at the head of the Bellows Gorge.
The western entrance, through which it seemed they must emerge,
was strongly fortified, and enormous chains are said to have been
forged and stretched across the river, their ends having been
made fast to holes in the rocks on the right bank, and to huge iron
posts imbedded in a flat rock of the left bank. The river people
say in support of this that at low water these holes and the posts
may be plainly seen if one knows where to look for them. Finding
themselves confronted by such formidable defense, the invaders
chiseled these holes in the side of the cliff, and from them built a
ladder by which they were enabled to go up and over the cliff, thus
taking the defenders on the flank, and hence accomplishing their
ends.

On the starboard hand as one goes up river, and probably
a mile from thei western entrance, is a cave in the side of a cliff.
In small crevasses, high up above the water, a nimiber of Chinese
bellows or windboxes can be plainly seen. Just who put them
there and when they were put there seems to be a matter of
considerable doubt. Some say that it is from these that the gorge
derives its name of " Bellows," or "Windbox," as it is sometimes
called. From the Chinese the writer has heard several explana-
tions offered, but no two of them agree. One old pilot said a " Joss
man " had put them there to make a favorable wind blow through
the gorge for up-bound junks.

The city of Kwei-chou-fu, situated about two and one-quarter
miles above the gorge, oft'ers a very good mooring place. Gun-
boats and river steamers usually coal here. Few travelers, how-
ever, go into the city, for although picturesque at a distance, it is
not particularly inviting when seen close aboard.

The Upper Yangtse River 331

Above Kwei-chou-fu, or Kwei-fu, as it is commonly called, the appear-
ance of the Yangtse is quite different. Precipitate cliffs and deep gorges
gradually give way to long sloping banks, which, where possible, are cul-
tivated. There are a number of rapids, but few of them offer any particular
difficulty to a vessel of 13 knots or more at ordinary water levels. The
navigation above Kwei-fu may therefore be considered much easier than
that below this place. Between Kwei-fu and Wanhsien (a distance of 68
miles) there are many rapids; but of these the following are the most
important : The Lao-ma-tan, or " Old Horse Rapid," bad at low water,
but never very difficult for a high-power steamer; the Miao-chi-tse-tan, or
■' Temple Stairs Rapids," fairly bad at all levels, and always to be reckoned
with; the Tung-yang-tse-tan, bad at low water, and the Hsin-lung-tan, or
" New Dragon Rapid." The Tung-yang-tse-tan is a particularly vicious
rapid during low water. The passage is narrow, and it is a very bad place
to encounter downward bound junks. The Hsin-lung-tan was formed on
September 30, 1896, when, after more than one month of incessant rain, a
portion of the hill on the left bank suddenly broke loose and slid into
the river. During low water this is the worst rapid in the Yangtse, and is
one of the impassable places for steamers. The average difference in water
level immediately above and below this rapid in February and March is
said to be about seven to nine feet. In 1915 the water was lower than here-
tofore, and experienced river men estimated the drop at that time as 12
feet. No rapids exist between Kwei-fu and Hsin-lung-tan during high
water, and except for the swirls even Hsin-lung-tan is negligible.

About one and one-half miles above Hsin-lung-tan is the village
and bay of Pan Tuo. As a winter mooring and drill place this is
probably the best in the upper river. A vessel may anchor a hun-
dred yards ofif the big sand bank, and men may be landed for drill
and exercise. Anyone familiar with Szechuan, or similar hill
country, will appreciate what it means to find a piece of ground
which is fairly level for a couple of hundred feet. It is, indeed,
unusual to be able to conduct an infantry drill in a space much
larger than the average ship's quarter-deck. The Monocacy
remained more than one week at Pan Tuo during December, 191 5.
Pan Tuo is one of the few places in the upper river which is con-
sidered safe as an anchorage, or a mooring, using anchors only.
The Monocacy anchored in about four fathoms of water with
about 18 fathoms on her riding chain. When day broke the fol-
lowing morning the sand bank near which we had anchored pre-
sented an appearance entirely different from that of the preceding
day, and large portions of it could be observed breaking off and
dropping into the water. The long sloping bank of the day before
had entirely disappeared. Farther inshore was just a steep bank.
Soundings were taken and the water found to vary from seven to

^T^2 The Upper Yangtse River

nine fathoms, but the vessel had apparently changed position
very little. The water had actually fallen a few inches durin;^- the
night. The only plausible explanation seemed to be that the whole
bottom of the small bay is on a great sloping rock. Silt and sand
were deposited by the heavily-laden high waters of summer, and
when the river fell to a certain level cross currents or underwater
swirls were set up which gradually eroded the sand flooring, and
as this was washed out the heavier bank above gave way and
worked down to take its place, a large portion of it in the mean-
time having been taken up by the then fairly clear water and car-
ried on down river. Needless to add, the Monocacy has since then
made the practice of getting out lines apply to all mooring and
anchoring places alike.

About 24 miles above Pan Tuo is the city of Wanhsieii, distant about
183 miles from Ichang and about 175 miles from Chungking. Officers, both
naval and merchant, I believe, experience a distinct feeling of satisfaction
when their vessels arrive safely at Wanhsien. There is a feeling that the
worst half of the up-hill work from Ichang to Chungking is over, and that
with an even break of luck the remainder will be safely and shortly accom-
plished. Steamers can find a good mooring just opposite the city, but the
water front which may be so used at all water levels is very limited. In
years past Wanhsien was a very important center of trade, second only to
Chungking in importance ; but in the past few years it is said to have been
of less importance commercially than heretofore. Preparations are being
made to open the port in the near future, and this will undoubtedly attract
foreigners and add to its importance. On the other hand, the projected
(and already surveyed) Szechuan railroad does not come within many miles
of this city, and should the railroad be built and Wanhsien left entirely out
of consideration it will seriously affect the progress of the place. There is
usually an abundance of steaming coal at Wanshien, and all vessels fill
bunkers here for the run to Fuchow and Chungking.

Seven miles above Wanhsien is the famous Footan (or Hutan ) Rapid.
At low water the rapid does not exist; at middle water it is bad. and at
ordinary high water, say 60 feet local, it is the worst rapid in the Yangtse
River. Above that level Footan improves, and the Fu-mien-tan and Kwan-
yin-tan take precedence for hard going. Its appearance at low water is
most peculiar. Extending out from the right bank is a huge pile of small
boulders, while on the left bank the river is narrowed to less than half its
average width by high ribs of peculiarly honeycombed rocks. Their appear-
ance is not unlike a section of Swiss cheese.

Above Hutan the river widens and the hills have a greater slope than
they do farther down river. The navigation for alxnit 21 miles presents
no special difficulties. Tn fact, there is fairly good going until Shili-pao-tsai
is in sight.

The Upper Yangtse River 333

Probably the most picturesque place on the upper river is Shih-pao-tsai,
a conspicuous rock rising up 300 feet on the left bank of the river and
surmounted by an ancient Buddhist temple. From the river it appears to
be rectangular, and the sides are so symmetrical that it is hard to believe
that it has not been built by human labor. On the river side of the rock
is a sort of pagoda-pavilion, containing a stairway to the top of the rock.
Its appearance, I believe, impresses one more as a great medieval castle
than as a temple.

, Above Shih-pao-tsai the currents are strong all the year round.
To even a maritime man this part of the river appears not fraught
with many difficulties if he sees it with the watermark at Ichang
at 25 to 35 feet. He will wonder,. however, why the pilot insists
upon crossing back and forth so much, and he will decide in his
own mind that the difficulties of the navigation are very much
exaggerated. Let this same man make the trip with the Ichang
watermark at about 15 feet, and again with it at about 5 to 10
feet. As the water begins to fall he will see the tops of numerous
ledges of rock, and then at low water he will be surprised to see
the extent of these. They are everywhere ; some running out
irregularly from one bank or the other ; some looking like huge
feelers extending perhaps a mile or more down river, or at an
angle to the flow of the current. Besides these there are detached
masses of rock, great boulders reaching 70 or 80 feet above low
water, and innumerable shingle banks which have proved the undo-
ing of more than one vessel already. He will, in fact, realize that
this rushing, rock-bound stream is, for navigational purposes, in a
class limited to very few, and in many characteristics unequalled.
He will understand why his native pilot is an old man before he is
a reliable pilot ; and, if he has a sense of justice, he will admire
and respect the intimate detailed knowledge of a man who, without
charts, buoys, beacons, or other navigational aids, pilots his ves-
sel in safety through 500 miles or more of this water at levels
varying on an average of 60 to 70 feet to the year.

There is really little change in the navigational aspect of the river from
Wanhsien to Chungking, or even to Suifu, which is 238 miles above Chung-
king. There are, of course, occasional reaches of safer and slower running
water, but these are rare, and cover a comparatively small percentage of
the river. Above Footan none of the rapids is bad except in high water
freshets. At such times the difficulties incident to strong swirly water
are quite general, but are accentuated at such places as Fu-mien-tan, Kwan-
yin-tan, Yellow Flower Gorge, Kiun-chu-tan, etc. A good general rule to
follow during a July or August freshet is to tie up and wait until the river

334 The Upper Yangtse River

stops rising, for bucking a rise of a foot an hour, or more, is a heart-
breaking undertaking.

About 48 miles above Wanhsien the city of Chungchau is passed. It is
said to have been a place of importance in days gone by, and its appearance
from the river indicates the probable truth of this statement. At present
it is of little importance. An excellent mooring may be found here, and
for naval vessels it is a good place for drills. An old target range may be
found '"nside the city which the local officials will allow to be used.

Leaving Chungchau, the next place of interest is Fengtu. Located on a
low hill and " protected " by several pagodas and the " Mountain of the
Emperor of Heaven, it presents a rather pleasing appearance from a vessel
standing up river. It will not bear a closer inspection though, for, as
some one has truthfully said, its streets are " filthy in fine, and impassable
in wet weather." In the flood of 1870 the city was almost completely
destroyed, and a new site, surrounded by an expensive and elaborate wall,
was decided upon by the officials. The new site was 200 feet above river,
in order to insure safety during the summer freshets ; but the people refused
to leave the old site, some saying that the new city was haunted, and others
that it was too far to carry water. Just below the city, on the left bank
of the river, is the sacred Mountain of the Emperor of Heaven. On its
summit are a number of temples, and its partially wooded slopes are literally
honeycombed with graves and tombs. Few spots in China are more sacred
to the native than this mountain. The temples are said to be more than
1000 years old. Captain S. C. Plant, inspector for the upper river, in his
account of -Fengtu says, "In one of these temples near the summit the
visitor, with a show of ceremony, is shown a hole, said by the priest to lead
to the center of the earth; but on dropping a piece of lighted paper down,
bottom is reached at perhaps 20 feet. Another remarkable feature of the
Tien-cho-shan is that for a very small sum a pass to Paradise, via the pole
star, may be obtained, and for another small amount a document insuring
the safe and happy delivery of the enciente, both bearing the seals of the high
priest of the Temple of the Emperor and the local mandarin." The Yangtse
Kiang Pilot, 1914 edition, describes another of these temples as follows :
" The temple dedicated to the emperor of the ' Yin,' or dead, is supposed to
be the residence of the emperor of Hades. At every Chinese death the
officiating Taoist priest writes a letter to the Tien-tse, duly addressed to
Fengtu Chang, notifying him of the newcomer. The dispatch, however,
is not sent through the terrestrial, but the celestrial, post, being burnt to
ashes. The precincts of Tien-tse-shan are supposed to be haunted by
innumerable ghosts, and no Chinaman will venture near it at night."

Just above Fengtu the navigation is very difficult at certain water levels.
A great area of straggling rock, called Tsan-pei-leang, extends more than
two-thirds the distance across the river from the left bank, while from the
right bank, opposite this, large irregular rock formations project. When
the water is low and flowing between these two there is no difficulty in
piloting through the channel (called Hu-ping-tan) ; but when the water
rises sufficiently to cover the rocks, the passage in between becomes a
rapid. An intimate knowledge of the locality and skill in handling the
river craft are required to safely navigate this place at such times. Long

The Upper Yangtse River 335

experience and close application, combined with good judgment, qualify
the pilot to decide when the Hu-ping-tan channel must be followed, or when
it is safe to cross over the top of the Tsan-pei-leang. The general rule is
that the channel between the reef and the left bank is available when the
Tsan-pei-leang reef is awash. It is such propositions as this that con-
stantly confront the up-river pilot; and upon his judgment depends the
safety of the vessel.

About one and one-half miles above Hu-ping-tan is the Kwan-
yin-tan. Like Footan, this rapid is nothing in low water. In very
high water, and particularly when the river is fresheting, it is
very strong and swirly. It was while attempting the approach
of this rapid that the little steamer Shit-tutii:; struck on the top
of one of the great projections of rock in this locality.
The vessel was proceeding over exactly the same ground that
she had covered on the preceding trip, and with water at the same
level. Suddenly, and without any warning, a great boil and inrush
of water, oversetting onto the rocks, rendered the vessel's engines
and rudders useless for the moment, and she was thrown violently
onto the rocks. These boils and oversets (called Fah-sui by the
Chinese) occur off this rapid at regular intervals of about 15 min-
utes during the high-water stage of the river. It is said that,
viewed from the nearby rocks, they are not unlike the surf on the
seashore. Attempts to float the Shu-tung proved unsuccessful and,
as the river was falling rapidly, it seemed that the little vessel was
doomed. Her commander and his European engineer determined
to make a fight for it. and at once discharged the vessel as much
as possible, and as the water went down shored her up so as to
prevent her being seriously injured. As soon as she was entirely
out of water her bottom was repaired and painted, the irregular
rocks under her bottom were cut away, and all the available timber
in the surrounding country was taken to make launching ways for
her. Finally, after 30 days of incessant labor, the little vessel was
launched into the river below, which in the meantime had receded
40 feet, and proceeded on her way to Chungking.

The run of 30 miles from Kwan-yin-tan to Fu-chow, although not pos-
sessing any particular charm, is, if machinery is working well, never
monotonous, for, unless the river is rising rapidly, good time is made and
a certain degree of pleasure is derived from the anticipation of a good moor-
ing place not many miles away. Then, too, if the run from Wanhsien to
Fu-chow is attempted in a single day, keen interest in the speed is only
natural, since it must decide whether the mooring place at Fu-chow can be
reached before dark. The city of Fu-chow, situated on a high bluff at the
confluence of the Yangtse and the Kien Kiang, presents a rather hopeful

336 The Upper Yangtse River

appearance as it opens into view from an up-bound vessel. On closer
approach it is, like most other Chinese cities, distinctly disappointing. The
Kien Kiang, or Little River, as it is sometimes called, is said to be navigable
for native boats for a distance of 150 to 200 miles above Fu-chow^. The
boats employed for this purpose are, perhaps, of all Chinese boats, the most
eccentric in design. To the foreigner they are commonly known by the
expressive term of " crooked-stern " boats. The after end of the main
deck twists to one side until at the stern it is practically at right angles to
the normal plane of the deck. Over the midship section of the unwieldy-
looking craft is built a sort of flying bridge. An enormous sweep, extending
over the stern and supported on the high side of the twisted stern, is worked
from the flying bridge. These vessels are not fitted with rudders, but are
steered solely by the sweep. The origin and idea of the " crooked-stern "
design is somewhat uncertain, but it is probably the result of many cen-
turies of the same kind of navigation on this swift mountain stream.
Like everything else Chinese, the idea is probably the result of practical
experience, and its embellishments the result of a certain degree of applied
" Joss."

Leaving Fu-chow, good time is made until about seven miles above, when
the currents become much stronger. At a picturesque bend in the river about
13 miles above Fu-chow is the city of Ning Shih. A conspicuous arched
bridge at this place is a fine example of Chinese architecture. From here
until Chai-pan-tsi is passed the navigation, generally speaking, is more
difficult. Rocks, shingle banks, rapids and swirls have to be reckoned with,
and like many other parts of the river, dififerent water levels affect the
movements and the handling of a vessel.

During low water one of the worst places on the river is the Chai-
pan-tsi. A sketch of this place will tell more at a glance than could
be included in a long- description (see Fig. i). The channel to the
river's right bank is used until the Chungking watermark is about
10 feet above zero, when it becomes unsafe on account of rocks.
Thereafter during the low water season the channel to the river's
left bank must be used. It is very narrow and swift. There is
probably no w^orse place on the upper river to meet junks, and it
has been the Monocacy's luck to encounter them here every time
she has been through except one. The best policy in a place like
this, if the steamer is bound up river, is to slow and give the down-
coming junks a chance to get by in safety. Up-river native crafts
have had to contend with the steamer very little, and the native
skippers seem to lose their heads completely when one approaches.
The recently appointed and very able river inspector, Captain S. C.
Plant, who has been associated with the upper Yangtse for more
than 16 years, is now endeavoring to formulate certain simple and
practical rules of the road for the river which will help the junk
master and the steamer skipper to a better understanding of each
other.

The Upper Yangtse River

337

For a reliable river pilot there is nothing very difficult between
Chai-pan-tsi and Chungking, at ordinary waters. At very low
water the upper end of the Lo-chi shingle bank presents some
difficulties due to rocks and shoal water ; but by using a sounding
pole a channel of sufficient depth can always be found. It is
extremely difficult, however, to get a Chinese pilot to use the
sounding pole. Generally speaking, he will not, if it is left to his
discretion, use the pole for fear of " losing face " ; and he would
prefer running a ship ashore to having other river men think that
he does not know the exact depth at all places and at all water
levels. As a result of such stupidity many accidents have occurred.
It is reported that some time ago H. M. S. Widgeon had her bot-

Fig. I. — Chai Pan Tsi — a narrow winter channel

tom very badly injured on the Chang-chow shingle bank through
not using the pole. The best rule to follow is to disregard the
pilot's wishes in the matter entirely and keep at least one pole
going practically all the time when underway, and two when in
bad places.

As a vessel enters the Tung-lo-hsia Gorge the lower customs
station of Chungking (Tang-chai-to) comes into view, and the
weary watch-stander realizes he is at last only eight miles from
his moorings. As a rule good speed is maintained, and before
long Tang-chai-to and the double bend of the river are left behind,
and the seven-story pagoda below the little city of Kiang-pei
bursts into view. Soon then the golden Buddha is abeam on the
port hand, and Chungking is actually in sight. Proceeding about
a mile beyond the golden Buddha the mouth of the Kia-ling-ho

338 The Upper Yangtse River

(or Little River) comes into view, indicating the dividing line
between Chungking and its little sister city, Kiang-pei. As the
steamer comes nearly abeam of Kiang-pei the splendid naval
establishment of the French is conspicuous on the port bow. The
so-called " naval barracks " are excellently located just below the
junction of the Yangtse and the Kia-ling-ho. A safe natural
mooring for summer and winter makes this location particularly
well suited to the purpose. The " barracks " are located on a
high rocky bluff overlooking the moorings. They are inclosed
in a spacious compound, the stone walls of which are probably
12 to 15 feet high. Healthful, roomy quarters are provided for
enlisted personnel, and a large house, furnished and equipped, is
provided for officers. Reading rooms, work rooms, etc., are fea-
tures of this building. It is, when one considers the thought given
to these details by the French, small wonder that their officers
have accomplished more in their efforts to learn the Yangtse than
those of any other nation. Their surveys of the lower Yangtse
waters are, of course, well known and held in high regard by all
officers navigating the lower river. But their survey work in the
upper Yangtse was necessarily accomplished under trying condi-
tions ; and its completeness, giving as it does a graphic representa-
tion of the river combined with detailed information obtainable
on no other charts, merits unstinted praise. Besides the quarters
for officers and men, the French base is equipped with machine
tools, forges, etc., in sufficient detail and number to make a vessel
cruising in these waters practically self-sustaining. Adjoining
and under the men's quarters are a large number of storerooms.
A stock of all kinds of stores is kept here so that a vessel spending
a few months in the upper river is not likely to find herself embar-
rassed by the lack of certain necessities, her allowed stock of which
has been used for proper purposes.

Proceeding a few hundred yards farther the splendid view of
Chungking, its suburbs and environs, opens out before the
observer. Kiang-pei, really only a walled suburb of Chungking,
rises out of the river on the starboard beam, while on the port
hand the extensive suburbs occupying all the river bank between
Wang-kia-to and Hai-tan-shih open into view. Ahead, on a
rocky promontory, rising 300 feet out of the river, is the city of
Chungking, pretentious, indeed, in appearance ; a veritable
" Arabian Nights " city in its indefinite and, at times, almost
opaque shroud of fog and smoke. There is no doubt a certain

The Upper Yangtse River

339

degree of psychology connected with the mysterious, almost
unnatural, feeling that comes over one when this magnificent view
first comes into sight. The many junks and native boats of all
kinds, the singing of the boatmen, the bustle and noise of the
thousands of cargo and water coolies on shore, the (at a distance)
almost sublime appearance of the city of Chungking, are in such

f'h

Fig. 2. — The city of Chungking

decided contrast to the wild country through which one travels
after leaving Ichang that the average traveler is really overcome
for the moment, and lost in admiration of this, the noblest view of
purely Chinese industry in all the Yangtse River.

In general characteristics Chungking is not unlike most of the
other up-river cities. It is, however, the largest and most impor-
tant of these. The sketch plan will no doubt assist in making the

340 The Upper Yangtse River

description more comprehensive. Between the Yangtse and its
affluent, the Kia-hng-ho, is a long, fairly narrow peninsula, the
lower portion of which is the site of Chungking. The population
of the city is variously estimated at from 200,000 to 500,000, but
there are no accurate figures obtainable. To the writer's inquiry
regarding this matter, a prominent Chinese official replied that he
did not know, but that he would have a census taken right away
and supply the desired information. Needless to say, he was
merely " saving face," and had no intention of putting his volun-
tary promise into execution. There is a great difference in the
appearance of the city in summer and in winter, due to the varia-
tion in water level. The two principal hills upon which the city
is built are all of 300 feet above the normal zero water level of the
river in winter. The fity is surrounded by a crenallated wall, which
is said to have been built in the fourteenth century. There are
eight main gates. Of those on the river, the most imporant are
the Tai-ping-men, the Tun'g-shui-men and the Chao-tien-men.
Leading up to these from the river are long flights of stone steps.
Large, clumsy mailed gates guard the entrances, and these,
with the exception of the Tai-ping-men, are closed and locked
before sundown. Sentries representing both the commanding
general and the police department flank the gates and scrutinize
every parcel a Chinese carries ; and woe betide the poor unfortu-
nate who is even suspected of attempting to smuggle forbidden
articles into or out of the city. The Tung-yuan-men, or West gate,
is the only one of the main gates which does not open onto the
river. It is the terminus of the great thoroughfare to Cheng-tu,
the capital of the province. Just outside this gate is the public
execution ground, and many a poor devil meets an unhappy and
untimely end here. In fact, during the writer's stay in this part
of China these executions were of practically daily occurrence.
Sometimes a day or so passed without the curious crowd being seen
on the wall overlooking the gate — its presence is always a sure
sign that another victim of China's peculiar form of government
was paying the penalty. Sometimes only one poor soul faced the
firing squad ; but frequently there were several. Many days there
were 20 or more. When a large number were condemned the
policy seemed to be to spread them out over several days, whether
for the edification of the populace, or for the convenience of the
official undertaker, it has not been ascertained. The people of the

The Upper Yangtse River 341

street have been hardened to this sort of thing, though, and par-
ties of men, women, and children are always on hand when the
tragic procession arrives at the gate. Usually the condemned man
is shot. Neither ammunition nor sentiment is wasted, however,
for usually a single shot is fired at very close range. The victim
falls and the " firing squad," consisting of about a section of
infantry, enthusiastically supported by the too curious spectators,
eagerly watches his death agonies until he is officially pronounced
dead. Frequently this is a long time, for the Chinese soldier is
none too good a shot, nor are his senses of humane treatment so
highly developed that he apparently cares just where the victim
is struck. Generally the attempt is made to shoot them in the chest
or the back, but frequently the shot goes wide, and they start all
over. The writer has seen such a case, the victim having first been
hit in the arm. Execution by beheading is not common now. Only
a few cases of it having occurred here during our time, but we
have seen many such during our stops at Fu-chow, 65 miles down
river. Although more horrible to contemplate, death by beheading
as practiced in China is decidedly preferable to death before the
" firing squad." The Chinese executioner is certainly an expert
at his job, for it seldom takes but one quick stroke to sever the
head entirely, and this without loss of time or unnecessary pre-
liminaries, once the execution ground is reached. However, exe-
cution by beheading is looked upon as a disgrace, and as a rule only
exceptionally bad robbers are beheaded. As the Chinese beHeve
it impossible for a man to gain admittance to the next world if he
is headless, the family, or some friend of a victim of the headman's
axe, visually pays the few cash necessary to engage a competent
and experienced tailor to sew it back in place.

But to return to the city gates. All those affording access to the
river are used by innumerable water coolies, each carrying across
his shoulder a pole about six feet long with a large bucket on each
end. All the water of the city, for whatever purpose, is supplied
this way, for there is no other water supply system, and of course
no drainage nor sewerage. There is a certain amount of natural
drainage, but what of the sewerage, etc., that gets out of the city
is also transported by coolies through the gates and down to the
river, where, as might be expected, at certain times of day the
odors are anything but inviting. With conditions like these, the
narrow streets are always most unsanitary. In justice to Chung-

34^

The Upper Yangtse River

king-, though, it must be added that for Chinese streets the pave-
ments ^e far above the average, and the streets proportionately-
very wide.

There are in the city a number of fine old temples, and to the
native point of view many handsome residences. To the visitor
these are not as a rule visible, for the Chinaman always surrounds
his mansion with an enormous wall. Probably the real reason for
this is the prevalence of robbers. The temples are practically all
in a run-down condition, and like those in most parts of China,
inspire little or no confidence in the present generation.

The governments of the United States, France, Great Britain,
Japan, and Germany maintain consulates or vice-consulates at
Chungking. Both Catholic and Protestant missions are to be
found in Chungking ; but aside from these and the maritime cus-
toms staff there are few foreigners there. A few firms retain
European representatives, but most of them seem to depend upon
Chinese agents.

The usual mode of conveyance is the sedan chair. The ordinary native
chair has two bearers, but foreigners usually use four bearers. Comfortable
chairs can be manufactured for about $io to $20 (Mexican) each,
depending upon the quality desired ; and a team of four good coolies can
be had for a total of $10 to $20 (Mexican) per month. Native
ponies, too, are extensively used. It is impossible to get about any other
way unless one walks, for the streets are continually crossing little rises
and hills, and great stone stairwaj's replace the paving stones of the streets
at such places. This is not only true of Chungking, but of nearly all of
Szechuan Province, and certainly of all the Szechuan cities I have ever
seen. The way these dexterous little ponies scamper up and down the
steps reminds one of the ease with which a goat would do the same thing
in America. A pony trots up and down the steps with a man on his back
apparently with no effort whatever. No road seems too bad for them, and
no hill too steep.

Across the river from Chungking rise two ranges of hills. On these
most of the foreigners have succeeded in leasing or buying enough room to
build bungalows where the hot summer months may be spent. Most of
these are attractively located and afford some excellent views of the river
and the city. When one is reminded that in summer a temperature of
112 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade has been recorded down on the river,
the necessity for the bungalows is at once apparent. On the second range
the British naval authorities possess two unpretentious, but thoroughly
practical, bungalows for their officers and men. Considering the country in
which these up-river vessels cruise, the very limited field of pastimes open
to enlisted men as well as to officers, not to mention the conditions that
exist on a small gunboat during the very hot summer weather, it is a wise

The Upper Yangtse River 343

policy which allows the expenditure of the small sums necessary for the
equipment and maintenance of such an establishment.

Just opposite the city of Chungking, and very conspicuous from
the river, the British have built a naval canteen for their men.
The building is perhaps one of the best in western China, and its
equipment, although not elaborate, is good, sufficient and attractive^
On the lower floor are two large reading rooms and a bar,
while on the second floor are a billiard room and a dining-room
where good food may be had at reasonable prices. The cellar and
the attic furnish excellent storeroom spaces, and quantities of sur-
plus stores of all kinds are kept here for the two gunboats which
Great Britain retains in the upper river. The fireroom forces of
these vessels are natives, so that the crews of both British gun-
boats here do not contain as many white men as one of our ves-
sels of the same class.

About one-half mile above the canteen the British have estab-
lished a small, inexpensive, but thoroughly practical, workshop.
It is equipped with forges, foundry, and sufficient machine tools
to make their vessels here self-sustaining. At least one of the
British gunboats now in Chungking has not been below Ichang
for three years. For docking a stpne grid has been laid out on the
sand inside the little harbor of Lung-men-hao, and taking advan-
tage of the several rises and falls of the river in spring, the ves-
sels are docked and painted.

In the harbor of Lung-men-hao are the British gunboat moor-
ings. These vessels not being in commission in the winters of
1914-1915 and 1915-1916, a mooring in here was assigned the
Monocacy. On account of the great difference in suinmer and
winter water levels separate moorings are required for the two
seasons. When the water rises to 20 feet above the normal zero
the summer moorings have to be taken up.

The total value of the trade passing through the maritime customs in
1914 was Haekwan Taels 37,632,208. Of this amount, T23,773,020 were
imports, and the remainder exports. In 1915 the value of the trade was
approximately 2,500,000 taels less than in 1914. Medicines, silk, wool, hides,
bristles, and hemp, are the principal articles of export. The imports con-
sist mostly of cotton and woolen goods, dyes, medicines, and illuminating oil.

There being no railroads in this part of China, and the country being
extremely rugged and hilly, water communication with the outside world
makes Chungking virtually the center of industry and finance for all the rich
Szechuan country beyond the gorges. Many streams, affluents of the Yang-

344 The Upper Yangtse River

tse, provide a means for marketing goods in Chungking. Roads, several
feet wide, built above the rice paddies and cut into the sides of the hills,
afford the only other means of communication between Chungking and the
numerous towns and cities of this province of 40,000,000 or more souls.
Vehicles on wheels cannot be used, and cargo or freight of whatever kind
must be carried on coolies' backs. During the Monocacy's cruise in the
upper river in 1914, 1915. and 1916, the brigands have been so bad that both
trade and travel have been seriously interfered with. There are four or
five small steamers that run between Ichang and Chungking from April until
December, but their freight rates run very high, so most of the shipping is
done by junks. The latter make the trip from Chungking to Ichang in five
to eight days ; but it takes them from one month to six weeks to make the
trip up from Ichang. The risks, of course, are very great, and no insurance
can be obtained.

The Peculiarities of the Upper Yangtse
Ichang-, distant nearly 1000 miles from the sea, is but one 134
feet above the sea level, while Chungking, although only 358 miles
above Ichang on the Yangtse, is 610 feet above the sea level. In
other words, between these two places there is a difiference in alti-
tude of 410 feet, or a drop in the river of about 16 inches to the
mile. The statement has often been made that as one journeys
through the gorges the sensation of looking down hill is experi-
enced when looking down river, and indeed it does not seem impos-
sible that this is no mere optical delusion when the above facts are
considered.

The incline of the river bed alone is sufficient to produce a strong
current throughout the year, particularly if the irregular nature of
the bottom is taken into consideration. Some of the reaches, more
especially those in the big gorges, are very deep, many of them
having been sounded to 70 fathoms, while an abundance of shoal
places produces at different levels many varieties of races and
rapids, not to mention the very important effects of the innumer-
able ribs of rock which are so conspicuous in the low water season.
But these characteristics probably hold true more or less for all
mountain streams, and after all, the upper Yangtse is nothing
more than a big mountain stream. Szechuan is a very moun-
tainous region, and may boast a large number of streams. Most
of these are tributaries of the Yangtse, and possessing, as they do,
the usual characteristics of mountain streams, they pour their
torrents into their common drain with marvelous rapidity during
the heavy summer rains, which sometimes continue for several

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346 The Upper Yangtse River

days. At such times the volume of water is suddenly increased
to several times the normal volume of the river, and at the narrow
places in the gorges the volume becomes much greater than that
which the cross-sectional area of the river at such places can nor-
mally handle. This partial blocking of the stream causes what
amounts to a backing up of water. The current for hundreds of
miles above the gorges runs at an abnormal rate, and the river
rises rapidly. It is not unusual during these freshets for the river
to rise at Chungking at an average rate of one foot an hour for
a total rise of 50 or more feet. In August, 1905, a rise of 80 feet in
less than three days was recorded, the Chungking watermark
on this occasion reaching a height of 108 feet above the normal
zero. Such a rise at Chungking produces an even greater rise
at Kwei-chou-fu and at Wu-shan, the cities at the heads of the
two largest gorges. x\ rise to the 100-foot mark is not unusual at
these cities during the summer.

During these freshets the river becomes a raging torrent. The
current at Chungking reaches a speed of eight knots or more,
and the stream becomes a mass of seething water, full of swirls
and dangerous whirlpools. At such times downward bound
steam vessels proceed with their schedules as far as Kwei-fu. If
the water is up around the 100-foot mark at this place the navi-
gation of the gorges below becomes most dangerous, and should
not be attempted except in cases of emergency. The violence of
the swirls in the gorges is almost unbelievable. They travel at
varying angles across the stream, and strike everything in their
paths with such force that experienced river men never, of their
own volition, take chances with them. Ordinarily it is wiser to
tie up and await a fall in water of several feet, and this is the usual
rule. So far it has not become necessary for the Monocacy to
attempt the gorges at such a time ; but in August, 1914, the writer
had the good fortune to make the trip down river in the powerful
new steamship Shii-hun (500 tons), when the river was dan-
gerously high. The vessel lost a day at Kwei-fu waiting for the
water to fall, and entered the Bellows Gorge early the following
morning. It was a splendid, and to the uninitiated, an almost
terrifying sight to behold. The great rocks, so conspicuous at low
and middle water, were submerged, and the water, rushing on
with incredible swiftness, swirled and foamed over them. Enor-
mous swirls with vortices several feet deep seemed to form every-

The Upper Yangtse River 347

where, and rotating rapidly would go charging athwart the stream
to bring themselves up violently against a cliff, a projecting rock,
perhaps, or the little Shu-hun. It was startling to see how they
literally lifted the vessel, and would drop her two, three or more
points off her course in spite of all that her captain and his crew
of river veterans could do. Small wonder that full speed was rung
up, and less wonder still that once safely through this gorge we
moored to the bank and awaited a fall in water before attempting
to negotiate the narrower gorges below Wushan.

Such rises as that described above are phenomenal, and may be
expected only during the period beginning in the first half of
July and ending in the first half of September. While from the
very nature of things the swirls and whirlpools are worst during
the freshets, the rapids, as previously pointed out, are not peculiar
to any season. Rapids are caused by a convergence of the stream,
thus forcing the volume of water, which passes a normal section
of the river at a moderate current rate, to accelerate to such an
extent that the same volume will pass a reduced section in the same
time. The great volume of the river is forced in from both banks,
and assumes the shape of a huge cambered tongue of water with
breaking edges. This water, rushing through the narrows,
impinges itself on the quieter waters below, and these become dis-
torted and break up into a mass of swirls and back water, which
form the approach. As a rule, rapids may be divided into two
general classes, namely :

(i) Those rapids formed by land slides, or formed just below
the mouths of gullies which, when fresheting. eject stones, peb-
bles, and silt into the main stream, thus in time forming a bank
which gradually partially blocks the flow of the stream and fills
in the bed of the river to such an extent that there is a great dif-
ference in the depth of water in and below the rapid, and just
above it ; and

(2) Those rapids which are caused by a narrowing of the
stream, and in which the depths are not appreciably different from
the water immediately above them.

The Ye-tan is an excellent example of the first type. Here the
great boulder bank extends out over halfway across the river,
and the depth of water in the rapid is 8 to 10 feet less than
it is just above it. This type of rapid is essentially a low or middle
water rapid, for when the water rises, and the bank causing the

348 The Upper Yangtse River

rapid is well under cover, the added cross-sectional area is suffi-
cient to take care of the additional volume of water, and a few
swirls and whirlpools will probably be the only evidence of a fero-
cious low water rapid. These banks vary in height and in width.
This, together with the fact that the rapid varies in strength
and permanence, according to the difference in the level of the
river above and just below the rapid, explains the reason why all
rapids of this kind are not at their worst at the same standard
watermark of the nearest port.

Of the second type probably the best example is the Hu-tan.
At low water it is nothing, but as the river rises it increases pro-
portionately in strength. Finally, as mentioned above, when the
local watermark is about 60 feet above zero it is at its worst.
The high rocky banks of this narrow stretch confine an enormous
volume of water to this one passage, and conditions do not improve
until the river rises still higher and overflows the walls of this
rocky funnel, or falls sufficiently to readjust the relative cross-
sectional areas in the rapid and just above it to figures more nearly
the same.

Races are plentiful in the Yangtse, but to the steam vessel they
present no special difficulties. The distinguishing feature between
races and rapids is that races do not assume the form of a tongue.
They are usually formed by shoals or reefs, and are most in evi-
dence during the low water season.

Swirls are encountered at all water levels, but they do not
assume dangerous proportions except at high water. They will
always be found in the approach to rapids, but at normal water
levels a veteran pilot knows just about how to expect them. The
high water swirls present a different proposition. They are found
to be worst in irregular rocky localities, or in reaches where the
contour of the river banks is irregular. They are caused by the
projection of many rocks which form small bays. The down-com-
ing water drives into these with the full force of the current, and
in so doing drives out against the current the water which was in
these little bays. This latter strikes the main stream at an angle
and assumes a circular form. If the force behind it is great it
develops characteristics not unlike miniature storms. In high
water these become violent, as pointed out above, and their vor-
tices are often several feet deep. The running swirls, or oversets,
known to the Chinese as pao-hsncn, are to be found, more or

The Upper Yangtse River 349

less, in all the turbulent reaches during high water. They
are different from the ordinary swirl inasmuch as they appear to
be volumes of water shot up from the bottom, which, upon reaching
the surface, break into great " boils," and the whole mass of water
sets rapidly in one direction or another. When the river is high
and fresheting these are very conspicuous in the Bellows Gorge
and in the Wushan Gorge. They constitute a decided menace to
junk navigation. While only such swirls as those just mentioned
attract any special attention, they are in reality very numerous in
all the upper river. The strong waters impinge against the rocky
banks, and innumerable small swirls, usually only a few inches in
diameter, are formed. The presence of these is believed to account
for the fact that no matter how hard the wind blows practically
no waves are produced, and the surface of the water normally is
smooth. The old adage, " It is an ill wind that blows no man
good," applies forcibly in this case ; for while the swirl at certain
stages of the river is a menace to steam navigation, and while it
takes a heavy toll of celestials every year, its " calming " effect
upon the waters saves many disasters. Very strong winds fre-
quently blow in the winter time, particularly so in the gorges. If
these caused a sea which compared favorably with what a less
violent wind will cause in the river below Ichang many disasters
would occur, and an entirely different type of native boat would
have to be used.

The whirlpools of the upper Yangtse are no different from the
familiar type. They are not dangerous except at high water.
They form where two streams join, or where a continuous and
extensive back water joins with a portion of the main stream to
form a great revolving circle of water. At high water the whirl-
pool formed at the junction of the Yangtse and the Kia-ling-
Kiang is very dangerous. It is said in Chungking that junks of
70 tons displacement have been sucked down here, but this report
has not been verified. One of the most troublesome whirlpools
for junks is only a few miles below Fu-chow. On one side of the
river is the down-going current, and on the other the back cur-
rent, which on the surface appears to be almost as strong as the
down-going. It is caused by the peculiar rock formations of this
locality. It is not unusual for junks to spend a whole day trying
to get out of this whirlpool.

350 The Upper Yangtse River

Among the other dangers of the upper Yangtse are the fogs.
The winter months, particularly November and December, are the
worst times for these. They seem to be most prevalent between
Kwei-fu and Ichang, though sufficiently bad above Wanhsien to
stop all traffic at times. It would be sheer madness to attempt to
run in the upper river during a fog ; but in spite of all caution ves-
sels are frequently caught by fogs in places where continuing
on their way invites almost certain disaster, and mooring presents
many dangers. The Yao-tsa-ho, for example, is most dangerous
in this respect. The rocky winding river between Shih-pao-tsai
and Chung-chou is also a bad place to be caught by a fog. During
the time of the year that fogs are most prevalent a good general
rule is not to get underway before ten in the morning if there is
any chance of a fog shutting down.

Probably the one thing that causes the greatest anxiety for
steamers at all seasons is the junk traffic. Certainly 75 per cent
of the hairbreadth escapes of downward bound steamers are due to
encountering downward bound junks in narrow channels, or in
turbulent reaches. If there is imminent danger on account of
junks ahead in a narrow channel, the best procedure is to turn
around and head up stream until the channel is clear, and then
proceed. Such cases are easily handled; but to encounter junks
in long turbulent reaches, such as the Niu-kou reach, the Yao-
tsa-ho, or in the gorges during rising middle water, or high water,
is a dififerent proposition. There can be but one hard and fast rule
for the downward bound steamer under such conditions, and this
is that some way, somehow, the steamer must keep clear. The
cumbersome, unwieldy-looking junks are practically at the mercy
of the current and swirls, which at any instant may throw them
athwart the steamer's course, regardless of which side she chooses
to pass on. The Chinese pilot usually knows the tendency of the
swirls to set to right or left in any locality, but the river frequently
fools the best of them. Probably the best procedure in such a
case is to watch for a favorable opportunity and then put on all
possible speed in order to pass the danger as quickly as possible.
Under some circumstances it is safer to follow up a junk right
astern, and then when fairly close up to him, make a break for tne
most favorable side and pass him as soon as possible. It is a wise
precaution to always keep a couple of small semaphore flags on

The Upper Yangtse River 351

the bridge and, by waving one of these from the bridge end, indi-
cate to the junk the direction you wish him to take. These obser-
vations, however, are quite general at best, for, after all, such
cases resolve themselves into matters of judgment, decision, and
prompt execution on the part of the skipper.

With conditions like those briefly described above, it is apparent
that the methods employed differ somewhat from those ordinarily
practised in maritime ports and in deep-sea cruising. The upper
Yangtse, in fact, may be said to have a seamanship, a river art,
all its own. Anyone who witnesses the masterly handling of a
small river steamer in one of the Yangtse rapids has abundant
proof of this statement. Vessels do not anchor in the upper Yang-
tse— they moor. There are a variety of moorings with which
the river skipper must be familiar, for not only do the conditions
differ from place to place, but the conditions at the same place may
vary considerably during a rise or fall of 20 feet or less. The best
of the native pilots still retain a degree of their " junk " ideas, and
this applies particularly to the question of mooring places. Experi-
ence has demonstrated, too. that in grave emergencies, such as
a bad entry to a rapid, the Chinese pilot, figuratively speaking,
" blows up." It therefore behooves him who would handle his ves-
sel with intelligence, and indeed with safety, to make a study of the
conditions before attempting the trip up from Ichang, no matter
how good his pilot may be. An officer in command of a naval
vessel should, upon approaching a mooring place, take the con
himself, and assume direct charge of the mooring operation,
asking, of course, his pilot's advice, learning all he can from his
(the pilot's) experience, but using his own judgment regarding
the details and their execution.

The confused mass of turbulent water, made up principally of
swirls and back water, which is encountered more or less at the
foot of every rapid comprises what is termed the approach.
Although alike in many respects, approaches have their individual
peculiarities. It may safely be said that owing to the difficulty in
bringing a vessel through the swirls and up to the rapid point
the approach presents dangers equally as great to the steamer as
does the rapid itself. Most approaches have a right and a wrong
side. In many cases one side may be foul, and in many others the
strong down-coming currents set up swirls and eddies which set

352

The Upper Yangtse River

directly onto the rocky banks. This is shown in the diagram,
Fig. 4.

The method which we usually employ upon approaching a
strong rapid is about as follows : Notify engine rooms and fire
rooms about 15 minutes before the rapid is to be steamed, and tell

Fig. 4. — Showing rapid points, the approach, and steamer's track

them about what speed will be required. When the rapid is in
sight, size up the situation, and give engine rooms and fire rooms
such additional information as seems advisable. For example,
it often happens that upon approaching a rapid it is apparent that
full speed will not be needed ; or that nothing above 300 R.P.M.
will be required ; or that all possible speed will be required, etc.

The Upper Yangtse River 353

When entering- the approach the engine rooms are usually given a
" stand-by " signal. The vessel is carefully piloted through the
approach just in the swirly broken water between the tongue and
the back water. As the point of entering the rapid is approached
full speed is rung up. Great care and skill, which only long experi-
ence can give, are necessary here in order to avoid the back water,
and at the same time keep clear of the strong down-coming cur-
rent until the vessel is as near as practicable to the rapid point.
Then she is eased over into the rapid so as to meet the rush of water
as nearly head-on as possible. Once in the tongue the confusion
and noise of the water, so characteristic of the approach, ceases
and the vessel steams her utmost in the smooth swift waters of the
tongue. In the meantime we watch with more or less anxiety (its
degree depending upon the strength of the rapid) ranges which
we pick up on shore to note whether or not the ship loses her head-
way. In the Monocacy the first " full speed " signal is answered by
speeding up the engines to 300 R.P.M. Then, when the vessel has
entered the tongue, if she fails to forge ahead, full speed is rung
up once more, and the engines are forced to 325 R.P.M. If this
fails to get her over the top of the rapid, a third full speed is rung
up, and the engines are given full boiler pressure. The two points
on either bank which form the rapid are known as the rapid points.
Where the approach will safely permit, the best practice sanctions
entering the rapid as close as practicable to the rapid point far-
thest up river. Then if, when the vessel enters the rapid, she
keeps the current slightly on her near shore bow she goes slowly
across toward the rapid point on the opposite side. If this rapid
point is slightly below that of the entering side, and if the vessel
has not lost too much ground in crossing over, she will, upon reach-
ing the opposite bank, be above the rapid point on that side,
and consequently over the worst part of the rapid. Where the
rapid points are about opposite each other crossing over will seldom
be of much benefit, and rapids so formed are frequently unsteam-
able for vessels of less than 14 knots speed. In strong rapids the
Monocacy usually loses all but the least perceptible speed over the
ground, but only once in the writer's experience have ranges indi-
cated that she was losing ground. Then gradually, as the vessel
nears the opposite bank, having weathered the rapid point on that
side, or as she bucks her way right into the teeth of it, the top of
the rapid is made, and an increase in speed is at once apparent.

354 The Upper Yangtse River

A moment later normal cruising speed — usually about 260
R.P.M. — is resumed, and the rapid lies behind us. Usually full
speed is not required for more than 10 minutes at a time.

The greatest care must be exercised upon entering a rapid. A
sheer over so as to get the down-coming currents well on one bow
means almost certain disaster. The diagrams shown under Figs.
5 and 6 are self-explanatory. A sheer out of the narrow neu-
tral zone of swirly water which lies between the tongue and the
back water will throw the bow into the tongue and the stern into
the back water. A strong force is exerted on the bow, and the
effect of back water renders the rudders useless. The bow is
thrown violently athwart the rapid by the down-coming waters,
and the effect of the back water is to push the stern up stream.
If a vessel gets into such a predicament, the only course to follow
is to back full speed immediately and put rudders amidships.
Then if the river dragon smiles upon you, and your vessel's bow
is not smashed into the rocks on the opposite side of the river at
the foot of the rapid, watch for a favorable opportunity to
straighten out, heading either up river or down river, taking
advantage of whichever way the swirls happen to throw your
vessel. A British gunboat had a narrow escape at the Niu-kou-tan
in just such a manner. She took a sheer, and before her engines
could take effect she had been swept down and across the river,
and her bow was smashed into the rocks. A German gunboat had
a similar experience at the Pao-tse-tan ; and several other vessels
have had narrow escapes.

So far it has never become necessary for the Monocacy to get
out a wire to assist her over a rapid. As this evolution forms an
important part in river seamanship its omission is not believed
advisable. Captain S. C. Plant, river inspector for the upper
Yangtse, has very kindly authorized the following description and
attendant figure. On account of his vast experience in this kind
of work, his remarks on the subject may be considered avithori-
tative :

When there is a doubt as to whether or not the vessel will be able to
steam the rapid the wire hawser should be laid out beforehand, because
in many instances it is both dangerous and difficult to back out of a rapid

after once having entered it It is when the vessel is in the tongue

that the hawser (if necessary) must be got on board. In order to accomplish
this it is necessary to edge the ship as close into the point as her draft
will permit, so that a boat (already stationed there) can put off to the

The Upper Yangtse River

^ ^,i^^\[t'nir^t>eR'^G ^uavffTS useless.

f , > A

SHIT' iT/rvctf

HEff£ B rs^

Fig. 5. — Showing accident that happened to a steamer through taking a
sheer upon entering a rapid

Fig. 6. — Showing narrow escape of a steamer in a rapid

356 The Upper Yangtse River

steamer with the Hne by which means the end of the wire hawser is brought
on board. To get the hawser on board, taut, and fair leading, is generally-
very troublesome, especially when the vessel's draft is more than three to
four feet, and when the nature of the rapid "necessitates a very long stretch
of wire. The difficulty is to keep it from fouling submerged rocks and
boulders, and care should be taken to buoy it at intervals, where practicable,
with sampans, which can be'cast off as the wire becomes taut and leading
ahead.

Perhaps everyone who comes to the upper Yangtse wonders
why vessels designed specially for this work are not built with
greater power. In the first place there are practical limits to
length and draft, and since these largely limit tonnage, they gov-
ern the weight of machinery which can be installed. A merchant
vessel, which will run only in the high and middle water seasons,
may safely have a length of 200 feet of a little more ; but a gun-
boat, which in emergencies may be required to take her chances
with the river at any stage of the water, should not be over 175
feet long. There are many tortuous channels at low water, and
some of the turns are very sharp. Furthermore, at all levels a
good pilot usually hugs the favorable bank as closely as he safely
can so as to avoid as much strong water as possible. With the
more or less irregular banks, and the many small bays which
offer perhaps a little back water (and the up-river pilot always
takes advantage of them), a very varied course is steered. All
up-river vessels are necessarily equipped with two to four rudders
in multiple. Consequently, when the helm is put over five or ten
degrees the stern is literally pushed to one side. This introduces
another element of danger. The best native pilot (and there are
no foreign pilots) knows considerably more about junks than
he does about steamers, and the up-river junk is steered mostly
by a long, cumbersome-looking steering oar, which runs straight
out ahead. They average about 60 to 75 feet in length. The
result is that when he has been educated up to steamer work he
often fails to bear in mind the characteristic noted above, and
pilots the ship as if she had only one end. As might be expected,
a number of vessels have had narrow escapes due to their sterns
having " side-swiped " the rocks. At least one foreign gunboat
was damaged by an accident of this kind. The writer has on two
occasions had to make a quick shift of helm in order to avoid
almost certain collision in this way.

The Upper Yangtse River

357

U A/STS^

TH£ SHfp JUST ffrrefi r/f/Cf^yc

/^£-/rv//tfC oven t^^ >^f^/D,

Fig. 7. — Showing disposition of line for heaving over a rapid

358 The Upper Yangtse River

In the low water of winter soundings of five feet may be
obtained before the rapids are bad enough to make navigation
impracticable. Also in the approach to rapids, even in summer, the
bank will be skirted very closely so as to get as near up as possi-
ble to the " rapid point " before entering and, in this way, sound-
ings of six or seven feet are obtainable. A river steamer's draft
must, of course, be limited primarily by the depth of water in
which she will steam ; but for an up-river vessel the characteristics
of the water through which she must steam also form an important
consideration. The most efficient type of vessel is that employ-
ing a spoon-shaped bow, the efifect of which is to present a smooth,
rounded, and as nearly horizontal surface as possible to the water.
The greater the draft the greater the angle of the spoon-bow to
the horizontal. A proportionate increase in resistance results, and
a draft of more than four and one-half to five feet will counteract
the benefits of an otherwise excellent bow design. The idea of the
spoon-bow is to reduce to a minimum the effects of sudden strong
currents which are encountered at a slight angle to the vessel's
course. By presenting a fairly smooth, well-inclined surface to
the rush of the current instead of a sharp stem with the ordinary
bow lines, steering is greatly facilitated and the strain on the ves-
sel greatly reduced, due primarily to its tendency to ride up and
over the new force. If the water be strong and swirly and the
vessel of light draft and good general design its effect will not
cause any particular worry, because the water really has no chance
to " get a hold " on the vessel. Take, for example, the navy
standard design 21-foot motor dory, with which the Monocacy
was originally equipped, and the specially designed motor sampan,
with which she is now equipped. The former gave excellent serv-
ice in the lower river, and upon arrival in Chungking it was hoisted
out and put into sirvice ; but not for long. After one or two trips
to the shore had been attempted with this boat we considered
ourselves lucky that no serious accident had occurred, and put it
out of use permanently. On the other hand, the motor sampan,
of practically the same length as the motor dory, takes races and
rapids and goes straight through a swirl that would throw the
motor dory eight points off' her course. To anyone familiar with
the Yangtse Kiang sampan, with its flat curved bow and its light
draft, the analogy between such a craft and the well-designed
river steamer is obvious. The steamer's frames and plates must

The Upper Yangtse River 359

be of the lightest possible material consistent with the required
strength. Machinery must be light and high powered. In fact,
lightness combined with maximum strength should preponderate
over all other considerations. In order that the propellers may not
increase the draft they should work in tunnels, and should be able
to drive the vessel, without undue forcing, at 14 knots. The spoon-
bow and the tunnelled flat bottom of the modern light steamer are
eloquent tributes to the craft of the river men as evidenced in the
original ideas so conspicuous in their small boats. Considering
these facts, it is no wonder that until comparatively recently vessels
suitable for such waters have not been built.

Moorings in the upper Yangtse may for convenience be divided
into two general classes, namely : ( i ) Those in which anchors are
not used; and (2) those in which one or more anchors are used.
For mooring purposes all vessels should be equipped with two sam-
pans of the native type, and a crew of natives should be employed
to operate them. The Monocacy has two such boats, and employs
five experienced river men. High-grade, flexible galvanized steel
wire line, one and one-half inches or two inches in circumference,
depending upon the circumstances, is also an essential part of the
equipment. It should be carried on portable reels, at least one
length of which should contain not less than 150 fathoms. Moor-
ing pegs four feet long and three inches in diameter, mauls for
driving the pegs, and coir line, furnish the other essentials. Moor-
ing in bays of quiet, slack, or back water, should be avoided unless
the locality is well known. Such places look most tempting ; but in
many instances rocks or ledges of reef lurk a foot or so beneath
the surface, and give no evidence of their whereabouts. It is
a good general rule to moor only in places where there is sufficient
down-stream current to give some indication of submerged rocks
near the surface. In unfamiliar localities it is best to select a
mooring place well before dark and tie up securely for the night.
The Chinese pilot is prone to run on, if it suits him, until twilight,
and then present you with the proposition of making fast at dusk
at a poor mooring place. Almost surely your lines will foul sub-
merged rocks, the ship will yaw all out of your calculations, and
you will find yourself wishing you had tied up at some good place,
probably only a few miles back.

Assume first a mooring place on the port bow where the cur-
rent is slow from ahead, the bottom and the beach sandy. Forward

360 The Upper Yangtse River

in a convenient position a reel of one and one-half inch wire has
been placed, and a light boom, with a tail snatch-block rigged,
has been lashed to a stanchion about 30 feet from the bow. The
wire is rove through the snatch-block, and the snatch-block is then
hauled up to the top of the extension boom so that it is as high
as practicable above the water. About 15 to 20 fathoms of the
wire are unreeled and coiled down on the deck, under and over
fashion so as to not kink. Steam is gotten on the anchor engine,
stern anchor is made ready for going over the side, stern lines
are in readiness and, other preparations being completed, the ves-
sel is ready for mooring. About one-half to one-quarter mile
below the mooring, speed is reduced to one-third, and sampans
are manned. When the vessel has lost sufficient headway to per-
mit it, sampans are lowered, the port one hauling quickly forward
and taking on board the coil of wire and the " peg party." This
latter consists of three men equipped with two wooden mauls and
usually four to six pegs. The starboard sampan in the meantime
drops back on the quarter, takes stern anchor on board and awaits
orders. When abreast the mooring place, and when the vessel is
the proper distance ofif shore, let go the starboard anchor and shove
off port sampan with the peg party and wire. The lead of this
wire being through the elevated snatch-block, it is payed out care-
fully from the deck, and kept out of contact with the water as long
as possible. In this way the sampan is usually fairly close to the
shore before it has to work against the force exerted by the current
on the wire. Having landed well up on the bow, the peg party
takes the wire ahead until told to make fast. One peg is driven,
a turn taken with the wire and the ship signalled to that effect.
Meanwhile chain has been veered, and by using the rudders the
vessel has eased closer in shore. The snatch-block is lowered
away, the wire given a fair lead and taken to the capstan, and a
strain gradually taken. When the vessel has gone astern suffi-
ciently to get the anchor bearing properly on the bow, the stern
anchor is taken out, probably 30 to 50 feet, and let go. A bow
and stern breast, a spring from forward, and an additional double
lead of wire on the bow, with double pegs, complete the mooring.
In case the stern is found to be in back water — a frequent occur-
rence— the stern anchor is let go from deck so as to keep the
stern from swinging too close in shore.

The Upper Yangtse River

361

362 The Upper Yangtse River

Variations from* this are moorings made in slack water, when
the vessel should be backed full speed until sufficient chain is
veered and the stern anchor let go ; and nioorings where rocks or
trees may be used for making fast the mooring lines. It sometimes
happens, too, that even with an anchor down a vessel moors close
to a steep bank. In this case mooring poles, of the type described
below, are used to shore the vessel off.

There are many mooring places in the upper Yangtse where it
is not practicable to let go an anchor. For example, the writer
has, on several occasions, found it necessary to moor in the big
gorges, or in some rocky reach where letting go an anchor would
have meant its certain loss, and a complication in an evolution
which otherwise might be considered fairly simple. In the gorges
the water is too deep to even consider the use of an anchor, and
in numerous other localities rocks and boulders abound in such
quantity that the recovery of an anchor would be too much to hope
for. In such places vessels moor to the bank by using lines and
mooring- poles. The lines employed are the same as those described
above. The poles are usually of some tough, well-seasoned native
wood, and are about 30 feet in length. Every up-river vessel
should be equipped with at least three of these. When underway
two such poles, one aft and one forward, should always be ready
for instant use.

Assume a mooring place on the starboard side, located in a
deep, rocky gorge, with broken, uneven shore line, and an in-shore
current of two knots, vessel bound up river. Prepare wire on
starboard side exactly as described above for use with anchor
moorings. Lay poles athwart-ships, one forward and one aft, and
rig two small tackles from each pole-head, leading at an angle of
about 30 degrees, to eye-bolts forward and aft of the pole and well
outboard. Approach the mooring with only enough speed to
insure good control. Lower starboard sampan, haul forward, and
transfer the wire and men composing peg party to it. Work the
ship a little above the point where sampan has instructions to land
and as close in shore as safe handling will permit. Shove off sam-
pan, paying out wire with great care, taking pains not to unneces-
sarily impede the progress of the sampan and at the same time
keeping the wire clear of the water as long as practicable. Mean-
while stop the oft'-shore (in this case, port) engine, and allow the
current to force the vessel slowly astern against the ])ower of the

The Upper Yangtse River

363

slow-running- in-shore (starboard) engine, thus insuring perfect
control of the vessel. Continue to handle the vessel in this way,
increasing- or decreasing the speed a little as may be necessary,
but keeping the vessel in the desired locality until the wire has
been made fast to some previously designated rock. Take the wire
to the capstan, and having worked the vessel abreast the position
where it is desired to moor her, gradually take a strain. The
greatest importance is attached to the lead of this wire. If it is
led from too far forward the head of the vessel is pulled in shore
as soon as a strain is taken. When the Monocacy first came up
river there was no alternative but to lead a wire of this kind from
too far forward. As a result we considered ourselves lucky, when
making such a mooring in the Wushan Gorge, that the vessel did

Fig. 9. — A mooring without anchors

not suffer serious injury, when, in spite of all efforts, the ragged
rocks finally came in contact with her at the turn of the bilge. A
heavy eye-bolt has now been installed on each side at frame 15,
about 30 feet from the bow. Under conditions similar to those
described above the vessel can be (and has been) worked in shore
or off shore under perfect control. Using the rudders, capstan,
and engines, the vessel is now worked slowly in shore, care being
taken not to give her a decided sheer either way. The order is
then given to " point the poles," and they are shoved out 12 or
15 feet over the side, the head tackles being tautened up so as to
control them. Quartermasters having graduated sounding poles
and stationed forward and aft give warning as the vessel slowly
comes in toward the bank, and if a sounding of less than 12
feet is found it is best to " out poles " and hold her oft' until the
water all along the ship's side can be sounded for rocks, which

364 The Upper Yangtse River

might be only a foot or so under cover. Meanwhile breast lines
have been run ashore forward and aft, and a spring or quarter-line
gotten out as a precautionary measure in case of a slight back
water close in shore. Let the vessel come well in, if there is suffi-
cient water. Then when all lines are made fast and the poles well
set, breast out 12 or 15 feet from the bank and tauten up the moor.
As a precautionary measure, the line on the bow should be doubled
before engines are secured. To get underway from this mooring,
the bow line should be singled, and all other lines taken in. Breast
well off with poles, but if possible breast the bow out a little more
than the stern. Give the vessel a little left rudder, and ease the
bow line slightly. This allows the current to catch the vessel on
the in-shore bow. As soon as she eases out sufficiently to take the
strain off the poles take them in. Then with the vessel headed
slightly off shore, ease rudders amidships and ring up one-third
speed. When the stern is clear of the rocks the party ashore may
be ordered to cast off the bow line. Straighten the vessel out with
engines and rudders, and handle her in this position until the bow
line is aboard, the shore party returned, and the boat clear of the
water.

While as a general rule absence from the larger units for any
length of time is hardly advisable for a naval officer, there can be
no doubt that experiences of a most valuable character may be
had in these waters. To anyone, whether he be landsman or sea-
man, the upper Yangtse is most interesting ; but to one accustomed
to large ships and to the methods of deep w^ater, the attractions of
this wonderful stream may easily become a fascination, the charms
of which are so great that they outweigh in importance the dis-
comforts that one must endure, the risks one must necessarily
incur, and the region in which one must exist.

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366 Secretary's Notes

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Skcketary's Notes 367

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368 Secretary's Notes

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if the reprints are struck ofif while the article is in
press. They are requested to notify the Secretary and Treasurer
of the number of reprints desired when the article is submitted.
Twenty copies of reprints are furnished authors tree of charge.

Secretary's Notes 369

. The discount to newsdealers is now 10 per cent,

, , instead of the 2S per cent heretofore allowed on

Newsdealers , . . ^ ^

subscriptions.

Anxapolis, Md., January 18, 1917,

INFORMATION INDEX

Page

Advertisements, Index to I

Publications, U. S. Naval Institute (2)

Special Notice 428

Prize Essay Topics 420

Whole No.
List of Prize Essays 167 218

List of Articles Related to War College Work 167 223

UNITED STATES NAVAL INSTITUTE,
ANNAPOLIS, AID.

REPORT OF AUDIT FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 30, 1916

Baltimore, Maryland, January 5, 1917.
To THE Officers and Members of the United States Naval Institute,
Annapolis, Maryland.
Gentlemen: — In accordance with engagement we have audited the books,
etc. of the United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Maryland, for the
year ended December 30, 1916, and submit herewith a certificate, and the
following exhibits :
Exhibit A. — Financial stateinent as of December 30, jqi6.
Exhibit B. — Statement of cash receipts and disbursements for the year
ended December 30, 1916.
Exhibit C. — Investments {bonds, etc.).
Exhibit D. — Accounts receivable.

Exhibit E. — Accounts payable all as of December 30, 1916.
Exhibit F. — Statement of income and expenses for the year ended
December so, igi6.

Respectfully yours,

Black and Company,
By Wilmer Black, C. P. A.
Certified Public Accountants.

UNITED STATES NAVAL INSTITUTE,

ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND

Certificate

We have audited the books, etc. of the United States Naval Institute,
Annapolis, Maryland, for the year ended December 30, 1916, and

J Ft? hereby certify that the accompanying financial statement and state-
ment of income and expenses are correct; and, in our opinion, set forth the
true financial condition and result of operations for the year, respectively,
as disclosed by the books of account.

Black and Company,

By Wilmer Black, C. P. A.
Certified Public Accountants.
Baltimore. Maryland, January 5, 1917.

EXHIBIT A
Financial Statement, December 30, 1916

ASSETS

Current Assets.

Cash (in bank), Exhibit B $20,364.54

Investments, Exhibit C 56,000.00

Accounts receivable, Exhibit D 2,939.48

Certified checks i5-oo

Inventory, December 30, 1916 (as taken

by yourselves) 7,312.58

Total current assets $86,631.60

Balance $80,778.96

Furniture and Fixtures 400.00

$81,178.96

37-2 Report of Audit for 1916

LIABILITIES

Current Liabilities. *

Accounts payable, Exhibit E $5,852.64

, Total current liabilities $ 5,852.64

Balance (excess of current assets over

current liabilities) 80,778.96

$86,631.60

Reserve Fund.

Balance, January 2, 1916 $ 7,233.14

Cash receipts 268.00

Transferred from General Fund 62.00

$ 7,563.14

(This fund by the constitution is com-
posed of $3,050, originally credited
to it. together with all the life fees
which have been, or may hereafter be,
received and the principal of this fund

. shall be held in perpetuity to guarantee
the future interest of the life mem-
bers.)
Surplus.

Balance. January 2, 1916 $72,123.65

Net profit for the year ended December
30. 1916 (for details see Exhibit F) . . 1.492. 17

73,615.82

$81,178.96
EXHIBIT B
Statement of Cash Receipts and Disbursements for the Year Ended

December 30, 1916
Balance. January 2, 1916 $14,578.67

RECEIPTS

Dues $ 6,121.11

Subscriptions 1,816.05

Sale of books purchased 868.49

Advertisements 1,012.30

Interest on investments 2,731.45

Postage 541.95

Binding 83.52

Life membership fee 268.00

Rebate on insurance 70.90

Sundries 53.74

Sale of extra publications 34,287.63

Sale of Proceedings 335.o6

Credits 20.29

Certified checks 3,641.75

Total receipts 51.852.24

$66,430.91

Balance. January 2, 1917 $20,364.54

Report of Audit for 1916 373

DISBURSEMENTS

Printing and binding Proceedings $12,726.00

Printing and binding extra publications 14.252.68

Salaries 5,1 19.00

Contributors ^ 2,877.00

Authors of text-books (royalties) 2,510.40

Postage and telegrams 1,018.95

Expressage, freight and hauling 185.41

Board meetings 255.60

Purchase of books for sale 990.67

Oflfice expenses • . 400.00

Stationery 426.16

Advertising 152.28

Certified checks 3,441.75

Prize essay award 200.00

Honorable mention award 250.00

Refunds 7.50

Engraving prize essay, medal and case 22.15

Insurance on Institute property 80.00

Attorney's fee 100.00

Discount 5.85

Subscriptions refunded 6.55

Dues refunded 4.00

Prize essay fund 1,000.00

Overpayments 33.52

Total disbursements $46,066.37

Balance, December 30, 1916 20.364.54

$66,430.91

Seaman's Bank for Savings, New York City.

Balance as per letter dated January 6, 1917 • $3,ooo.cc

Rhode Island Hospital Trust Company,
Providence, R. I.
Balance as per letter dated January 3, 1917 3.570.78

Society for Savings, Hartford, Conn.

Balance as per letter dated January 5, 1917 3.552.00
Farmers' National Bank, Annapolis, Mary-
land 10,241.76

Balance as per statement dated January 2,

1917 $11,475.70

Less Outstanding Checks.

#2747 ■ $ 2.50

2976 32.00

2977 112.00

2978 45.00

2981 24.00

2982 7.50

2986 .. . 10.00

2988 5.00

2989 5-00

2990 5.00

2991 5-00

2994 823.45

2995 1.32

2996 42

2997 r.59

2998 16.30

2999 96

374

Report of Audit for 19 i6

EXHIBIT B— Continued

#3000 ' . • ? '^■'^'^

3001 3.49

3002 1-66

3003 ^-o^

3004 3.?9

300s ^J,-g

3007 10.18

-ic^rR 45

36.13

3009
3010

375
25.00

3012

oon ^^-^

3m8 ::: -^6.35

3019 90

3020 "-^

$1,233-94
$10,241.76

$20,364.54
EXHIBIT C
Investments (Bonus) December 30. 1916

Face Value Book Market

i^ace value ^^^^^^ \3.\vif,

$6,000 Southern Railway. */^.w.nn'R6T^ooo

6 $1,000 57o registered gold bonds $ 6,000.00 ? 0,120.00

2 000 Washington Railway and Electric Company.

2 $1,000 A% 50-year gold bonds, consolidated t 6^- 00

mortgage •■••• --■ -ooo.oo i, 3o-

18 000 Northern Pacific and Great Northern R. K.

8 $1,000 joint bonds, registered; 2 $5,000 „_„.^

C. B. & Q. collateral registered 18,000.00 I/./7dOO

12,000 Northern Pacific Railway.

4 $1,000 37o registered gold bonds, i $5,ooo
3% registered gold bond, 3 $1,000 3% reg-
istered gold bonds, general lien due Jan- ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^

9,000 *B. & O. R.'R. Co.

I $5,000 first mortgage 4% 50-year gold reg-
istered, I $1,000 first mortgage 4% 50-year
gold registered, 3 $1,000 prior lien 3^/4%,

due 1925 9,000.00 8,325.00

2,000 Potomac Electric Power Company 5% 2,000.00 2,000.00

7,000 New York City registered 4/2% 7,ooo-00 7.ooo.oo

$56,000 $56,000.00 $50.985-00

EXHIBIT D
Accounts Receivable December 30, 1916

Back dues

775.00

Subscriptions 221 46

Advertisements 9nna2

Extra publications '■,°//-'J

$2,939.48

^7,563.14 of these bonds belong to the Reserve Fund

Report of Audit for 1916 37.5

EXHIBIT E
Accounts Payable Dfxember 30, 1916

Brentano, New York $ 6.82

Postmaster, Annapolis, Maryland 22.24

M. Cox 13.80

Wells Fargo Express Company 37.20

Nautical Publication Company .90

Globe Furniture Company 16.00

McGraw-Hill Book Company 4.07

Black & Company '. 100.00

Lord Baltimore Press 3,329.42

Authors of books (royalties) 2,301.90

Sundry credits 20.29

$5,852.64

EXHIBIT F
Income and Expenses for the Year Ended December 30, 1916
Inventory, January 2, 1916.

Back numbers of Proceedings $ 200.00

Extra publications 13,161.78

$13,361.78
Purchases for Year.

Books for sale $ 997.35

Printing and binding Proceedings 12,792.17

Printing and binding extra publications 11,918.44

Inventory, December 30, 1916.

Extra publications $ 7,012.58

Extra numbers of Proceedings 300.00

(as taken by yourselves).

25,707.96
$39,069.74

7.312.5:

Cost of publications sold $31,757.16

Profit on sale of publications 4,117.41

$35,874.57

Sale of extra publications $34,671.02

Sale of books: 868.49

Sale of Proceedings 335.o6

Total sale of publications $35.874..'^7

expenses

Postage and telegrams $ 489.28

Expressage, freight and hauling 222.29

Insurance 9.10

Contributors 2,877.00

Salaries 5,ii9.oo

Authors of books (royalties) 3,329.90

Office expenses 358.40

Board meetings 255.60

376 Report of Audit for 1916

EXHIBIT E.— Continued

Prize essay award $200.00

Honorable mention award 250.00

Attorney's fees 100.00

Stationery 425.96

Advertising 152.28

Life members 62.00

Engraving prize essay medal and case 22.15

Total expenses §13,872.96

Excess of income over expenses transferred to surplus 1,492.17

[5.365-13

INCOME

Profit on sale of publications $ 4,1 17.41

Dues 5,631.91

Subscriptions 1,819.40

Advertisements 982.44

Interest on investments 2,731.45

Binding 83.52

Total income $15,365.13

This report of audit was accepted and approved by the Board
of Control, at the monthly meeting held January 16, 1917.
J. W. Greenslade,

Secretary and Treasurer,

U. S. Naval Institute.

PROFESSIONAL NOTES

Prep'ared by Lieutenant R. S. Edwards, U. S. Navy

Vessels Building.
Characteristics of Xaval Vessels

AND Aircraft.
Naval Policy.
Material.
Personnel.
Operations.

GENERAL ARRANGEiMENT

PAGE

Austria 2,11

France 377

Germany 2)17

Great Britain 2>n

Holland 378

Italy 379

Japan 379

Russia 380

Spain 380

(^ United States 380

United States Naval Militia and Naval Reserve 398

Engineering 399

Submarines 400

Aeronautics 401

Lessons of the War 403

Miscellaneous ! 404

Current Naval and Professional Papers 404

AUSTRLA.

Vessels Building. — Nothing is known about the ships now building in
Austria.

FRANCE

Vessels Building. — Nothing is known about the ships now building in
France.

GERMANY

Vessels Building. — Nothing is known about the ships now building in-
Germany.

GREAT BRITAIN

Vessels Building. — Nothing is known about the ships now building in
Great Britain.

37^^

Professional Notes

Royal Navy Transport Service Established. — Last night's London
Gazette contained an Order in Council sanctioning the establishment of a
Royal Naval Transport Service. The schedule sets out the following
grades, rank, and scale of pay under the new order, which takes effect as
from December i. 1916:

Grade of Transport Officer.

Principal naval transport

officer

Do.

Divisional naval transport
officer

Transport officer, ist grade

Do.

2d grade

Do.

3rd grade

Do.

4th grade

Efjuivalent Rank.

I f a flag officer, the rank he
holds

Otherwise, commodore 2d
class

Captain

Commander, unless already
of higher rank, when he
retains that rank

Lieut. Commander

Lieutenant

Subaltern or warrant officer

Pay (Consoli-
dated Rate).

£1,700

£1,100
£1,000

^550
^450
£400
£250

The above rates of pay not to apply to engineer officers, accountant offi-
cers, chief gunners, chief boatswains, officers of the carpenter branch,
chief officers of coastguard, lieutenants and quartermasters Royal
Marines ; and all these officers to retain their present rates of pay and
allowances. Officers granted a higher relative rank under the above table to
enjoy the status and wear the uniform of that higher rank, but are not to
be entitled to use the higher naval title. — Naval & Military Record, 27/12.

HOLLAND

VESSELS BUILDING

Cruisers

6000
6000

10 6-i
10 6-i

Amsterdam
Flushing

Note. — Four submarines are building, three at Rotterdam and one at Flushing, of 836
tons displacement and a siirface speed of 17^ knots. The two cruisers were to be built in
Holland by Krupp, and it is not known whether or not construction is proceeding.

Tne budget for 1917 provides for the construction of three more submarines and a
mine layer.

Holland to Take Over Interned Submarines. — London. The Dutch
Minister of Marine, J. J. Rambonnet, says a Renter despatch from The
Hague, announces that because naval construction has been hampered by the
war, negotiations have been opened with the British and German govern-
ments with a view to Holland taking over interned submarines. The trans-
fer of one British and one German sulimarine has thus far been arranged. —
Nciv York Herald. 9/1.

Professional Notes

379

ITALY

VESSELS BUILDING

Name

Armament

Builders

Remarks

Battleships

Carraciolo

Marcantonio-Co-

30,000
30,000
30,000
30,000

25
25

8 15-in., 16 6-in.
same
same
same

....

To be completed in 1917

Cristofaro-Co-

Francesco-Maro-

Note. — In July, 1914, approximately 15 destroyers, two torpedo-boats, and eight sub-
marines were building.

It is probable that the building program has been accelerated and increased since the
outbreak of the war.

Italy Investigating Destruction of Battleships. — Rome, via Paris.
More than 40 persons are novsr imprisoned as a result of the investiga-
tions into the destruction, in September, 1915, and August, igi6, respectively,
of the Italian battleships Benedetto Brin and Leonardo da Vinci. The
latter was blown up in Taranto Harbor and 248 men perished.

Lieutenant General Count Cardorna, Chief of Staflf, came to Rome on
Thursday to attend a meeting of the Cabinet, which was held for the
purpose of deciding upon the disposition of the prisoners, but the question
has become a political one from the introduction into the case of the name
of one of the officials of the Vatican.

An Italian named Ambrogetti, who was among those charged with being
implicated in the destruction of the warships, says he is the financial agent
of Mgr. Gerlach, Pope Benedict's private chamberlain. Mgr. Gerlach is
an Austrian, and according to information here was once a cavalry officer
who became a priest and won the fayor of the present Pope when the latter
was a Cardinal. He was the bearer of the red hat from the Pope to the
three French Cardinals who were appointed at the December Consistory.

It has been learned that Mgr. Gerlach, previous to Italy's entry into thc-
war, was interested in a pro-Austrian newspaper at Vittoria, of whkhf
Ambrogetti was manager.

The Italian authorities have learned details of the plot which ended in the
destruction of the two battleships from the Italian author, Archita Valente,
who was arrested some months ago. The suspicion that the explosions on
the ships were due to a conspiracy originated from the fact that certain
naval machinists were aboard the ships at the time of their destruction,
and on each occasion escaped uninjured. They were followed to Valente's;
house in Rome and were there arrested.— Associated Press in N. Y. Herald.

JAPAN
VESSELS BUILDING

Name

re C

1e
0

Armament , Builders

Remarks

Battleships
Ise ..

30,800
30,800
32,000

22.5

[ Kawasaki

Launched 11-11-16.

Huga

Nagato

24.0 12 15-in. (?) 1 Kure Arsenal

Note.— On April i, 1916, Japan had nine destroyers under construction.

380 Professional Notes

Japan Denies Rumor of Transfer of British Ships. — The press has
published rumors to the effect that after the war England would transfer
to Japan a number of large war vessels, six to eight being the usual num-
bers mentioned, while either battle cruisers or modern battleships were
specified. The New York Times accordingly cabled the Imperial Govern-
ment requesting confirmation or denial of the rumor and publishes the fol-
lowing from the Foreign Minister in reply :

ToKio, December 29.
Consul General of Japan, Nezv York.

It is alleged that the rumor seems to be prevalent at Washington that a
certain agreement has been concluded between Great Britain and Japan
that after the European war is ended the former will transfer to the latter
six large sized men-of-war. The N'ezv York Times accordingly inquired
by cable of the Imperial Government regarding the authenticity of the
above rumor. As there is absolutely no foundation of fact whatever in that
rumor you are herebv authorized to communicate with that newspaper to
that effect.

(Signed) Motono.

RUSST.\

Vessels Building.. — Nothing is known about the sliips now building in
Russia.

SPAIN

Vessels Building. — There are building or projected three 15,000-ton
battleships, four 5600-ton cruisers, six destroyers, and 28 submarines.

UNITED STATES

Battleships of the 1917 Program. — A press dispatch frqm Washington
says that Chief Constructor Taylor told the House Naval Committee that
the battleships authorized at this session of Congress will have a displace-
ment of 42,600 tons in order to carry the main battery of 12 16-inch guns
and make 22, knots.

Army and Navy to Build a Zeppelix. — It was officially announced on
January 9 that a Joint Technical Board, consisting of the Chief Constructor
of the Navy, as senior member, and three officers from the aeronautic
branch of the army and three from that of the navy, will soon be appointed
to construct a " large airship of the general Zeppelin type." The plans
necessary before such construction can be actually begun are already
under way. The expenditures made in the work will be borne equally by
the army and the navy appropriations made by the Sixty-fourth Congress.
The decision to construct a rigid airship of the type in which Germany has
specialized and which, according to numerous dispatches from the European
fronts, her engineers have brought nearest the point of perfection, was
taken after a joint committee, composed ^f officers from the aeronautical
branches of both services, the General Staff of the Army and the General
Board of the Navy, had completed a thorough study of the present status
of rigid airships and had reported the Zeppelin the type best fitted for the
needs of this country. The recommendations of this joint committee have
been approved by the Secretary of War and by the Secretary of the Navy.
In announcing this important step in the development of the military air
defense of the country, the War Department declared that the " importance
of the rigid airship for military and naval purposes is fully realized, and it

Professional Notes

381

UNITED STATES VESSELS BUILDING AND AUTHORIZED

Name P^'S^-

Main
battery

Where
building

fo com-
pleted
Jan. I

Battleships
New Mexico . .
Mississippi.

Idaho

Tennessee
California
Colorado. .
Maryland.
Washington ..
West Virginia.
No. 49^

53
S4J

Battle Ciuisers\
No. O

32,000
32,000
32,000
32,300
32,300

[32,600

14-in

New York

Newport News.

Camden

New York

Mare Island...

rCamden

J Newport News
1 Camden

LNewport News

35.000
Charact

10 14-in.
tics not d

j Contracts not
( let

Scout Cruisers
No.

etermined.
Seattle ...

&■

J Contracts 1
1 let

Destroy I

Allen

Shaw

Caldwell .
Craven. . .

Gwin

Conner. . .
Stockton .
Manley ..

20 (Nos. 75-94)

085
085
123
121
121
08s

i,i8s

r Bath

Mare Island .
Mare Island .

J Norfolk

Seattle

Cramp's

Bath

rS Fore River ..
6 Union Iron

Works

4 Bath

^2 Mare Island.

30 (Nos. 95-124) [ CharacI
Gunboats I

No. 21

1.575
Charact

4-in. I Charleston,
not dietermined. . .

To be begun by July i,
1919.

Bids under consider

tion.

To be begun by July
1919.

Each carries 4 aero-
planes.

To be begun by July
1919.

4 triple tubes.

To be begun by July i,
1919-

To be begun by July
1919.

Submarines.
Building 61.

Authorized to be begun by July i, 1919;— 28 coast defence submarines.
9 fleet submarines.
Vessels of the train.
Building and authorized: —

4 fuel ships, I repair ship,

• 1 supply ship, 2 transports,

2 ammunition ships, 2 destroyer tenders,

I hospital ship, i fleet submarine ter

382 Professional Notes

is believed that the problems involved can be worked out better, more
rapidly and more economically by joint action than if each service took
them up separately." — Army and Naz'y Journal, 13/1.

The Navy's Air Policy. — The Army and Navy Register publishes the
foUoviring abstract of the preliminary estimates for naval aeronautics,
1918:

The following are detailed estimates in accordance with total estimate of
$5,133,000, which it is understood has been accepted as the preliminary
estimate for aeronautics, 1918:

Fleet :

30 aeroplanes at $18,000 $540,000

Spare parts, operation and maintenance for above 448,200

$988,200

Naval Militia :

12 school aeroplanes at $9000 $108,000

Spare parts, operation, and maintenance for above 89,840

$197,840

Marine Corps :

One advance-base unit (4 aeroplanes at $18,000) $72,000

Spare parts, operation, and maintenance for above 59,76o

Two kite balloons 8,000

Hydrogen-generating set and storage cylinders 50,000

Hangars, runways, and shops 50,000

Tool outfits, etc 45,000

$284,760

Pensacola aeronautic station :

40 aeroplanes at average price $12,000 $480,000

Spare parts, operation, and maintenance for above 398,000

Station maintenance 70,000

$948,000

Pacific coast aeronautic station : Cost of development, including
improvements to grounds, waterfront development, hangars,
shops, and power plant $750,000

Pearl Harbor station : Same as for Pacific coast station 500,000

Canal Zone : Army has been requested to add $250,000 to sundry
civil bill for development of navy aeronautic station on Canal
Zone None.

Lighter-than-air craft :

2 large dirigibles $1,000,000

2 hangars for same 250,000

Hydrogen plants 200,000

$1,450,000

Total of items listed $5,119,200

Miscellaneous .* 13.800

Grand total $5,133,000

Professional Notes 383

In this connection the following letter of the Secretary of the Navy to
Aviation and Aeronautical Engineering is of interest.

Navy Department, Washington, D. C.

Sir : I beg to acknowledge receipt of your letter requesting a statement
in regard to the policy of development of aeronautics in the navy, and the
method of training officers and men of, and connected with, the naval
service.

The policy is to develop seaplanes, dirigibles, and any other form of air-
craft which may be useful, to a state where they will be of great assistance
to the fleet in the many problems with which it has to contend or
representing the first line of defense of the nation.

It is anticipated that the following duties will be performed by naval
aircraft :

(a) Scouting from ships at sea.

(b) Off shore scouting from coastal stations.
(>•) Spotting.

(d) Offensive operations against enemy aircraft and possibly against
ships and stations.

Of the duties enumerated it is considered that scouting is primary, and
it is the endeavor of the navy to develop aircraft for this purpose. Sea-
plane development has been carried on for several years, but has a long
way to go before most of the required military conditions to make them
a very useful adjunct are fulfilled. The conditions are much harder than
for land machines ; i. c.. weights and head resistance are greater, difficulties
of float construction are enormous, method of handling necessitates special
construction, and additional engine power is required to break machine from
water. The solution of the seaplane problem is difficult because so few
people really understand the many difficulties encountered. A certain
amount of co-educational work was therefore necessary before any real
progress could be made. Development of lighter-than-air craft is equally
slow, as most of this work has been done abroad, and the knowledge on
the subject in this country is very limited.

Now that sufficient funds have been appropriated the navy is in a posi-
tion to push the development of this type of aircraft, and it is hoped that
immediate results will be forthcoming. Specifications for lighter-than-air
craft will be sent out before January i, 1917.

The training of personnel has been slow, because of the lack of proper
seaplanes with which to carry on the training. The system is thoroughly
organized, and satisfactory seaplanes for this purpose are now being
produced. The aeronautic station at Pensacola has been greatly developed,
and the school at that place is working to the limit of its present capacity.
In addition to training regular classes of naval and marine officers and
men, classes of naval militia and coast guard officers and men are now
received every three months and put through the course. In this way the
trained personnel available in time of war is being rapidly increased. It is
the intention to establish other stations as rapidly as the development of the
air service will warrant.

The U. S. S. Seattle, equipped with five seaplanes and catapult launching
device, will go south with the destroyer force for the winter practice in
the Carribean. The U. S. S. North Carolina will again go to sea after her
repairs are completed. She is also equipped with seaplanes and catapult
launching device. Specifications for a special type of seaplane for use from
ships at sea have been sent to the various seaplane manufacturers through-
out the country, and it is hoped that by next spring some of this type
will be ready for use.

In conclusion, it can be said that the training of personnel is now pro-
gressing smoothly, and that efforts are being made in every direction, both
in America and abroad to obtain material for the proper equipment of the
navy.

JosEPHUS Danii:ls, Secretary of the Navy.

384 Professional Notes

Bids for Scout Cruisers. — New bids for three scout cruisers were
opened on January 3. The only bidder was the Fore River Shipbuildings
Corporation, which submitted two bids, one proposing to build one vessel
for $5,900,000 or two vessels for $5,825,000 each ; one in 40 months and the
other in 42 months. The other bid was to build one or two vessels at
actual cost of construction plus a fixed percentage to be agreed upon. One
of the four scout cruisers authorized for immediate construction was
awarded to the Seattle Construction and Dry Dock Company in December ;
bids for the other three were unsatisfactory and were readvertised with the
results noted above.

Increased Facilities for Navy Yard Construction Recommended. —
High prices and unwillingness to build in accordance with Department
specifications have characterized some of the bids for vessels of the 1917
program. One phase of this situation is outlined in the following from the
Army and Navy Journal:

" The report that difficulties attending the securing of contracts for the
installation of electric drive or other electrical machinery in the ships
authorized in the 1916 program, had led to a change in the plans for the
vessels, is authoritatively denied. To the contrary, it can be said that the
original specifications for these ships still stand, and every indication is that
they will stand until the ships in question are commissioned. As gathered
at the Navy Department the situation is as follows : Manufacturers of
turbine engines, fearing the importance of the precedent established by
electrically propelled vessels, made every effort to prevent such equipment
in the initial case, but lost the fight. When the specifications for the new
warships were made known, the fight was begun with renewed vigor but, as-
a high official of the Navy Department said, ' they will again lose.' Asked
if there was not good ground for the fear of the turbine makers that
electric propulsion might become a fixture in all future vessels, this same
official replied : ' At present there seems to be very good grounds for
such fear.' "

In an effort to reduce the cost of hull construction the Navy Department
requested the steel manufacturers to revise their estimates of cost of
structural steel to shipbuilders, and about 75 per cent of the firms interested
cut from 8 to 15 per cent from their estimates. Even with these reductions,
however, the Department found it impossible to secure contracts for new
ships within the limits 'of cost set by Congress. According to the Army
and Navy Journal the decision was reached late in December to build one
of the battle cruisers at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, and on January 8
the Secretary of the Navy recommended the appropriation of $12,000,000
for fitting navy yards for ship construction. The Secretary's letter to the
Chairman of the House Naval Committee, which we quote from the Army
and Navy Journal, is as follows :

" The situation with regard to the preparedness program is such that if
the manifest intention of Congress and the country is to be carried out,
radical action is necessary. It is required by the Act of August 29, 1916,
that the vessels authorized be completed speedily. The Department has
done its utmost in this connection, but finds that the private shipbuilders of
■the country are unable or unwilling to undertake the complete program with
any assurance of speed in completion, even at prices which the Department
regards as unreasonably high.

Professional Notes 385

" The preparedness program halts by reason of this condition. The
present situation demands that the Government largely increase its building
facilities at the earliest possible moment. Six million dollars were author-
ized by the Act of August 29, 1916, for improvement of our navy yard
plants, in order to enable them to assist in connection with the program.
Ships have been ordered built at the navy yards fully up to the limit of our
present facilities, there being already under construction or on order at the
navy yards 19 naval vessels of various types. I recommend that $12,000,000
more be authorized for fitting up navy yards, to be made immediately
available.

" The present conditions as regards the vessels authorized by the Act of
August 29, 1916, are as follows : Four battleships, one scout cruiser, 18
destroyers, and 29 coast submarines have been awarded to private builders.
Two destroyers, one coast submarine, one fuel ship, one hospital ship, one
gunboat, and one ammunition ship have been assigned for navy yard con-
struction. This leaves four battle cruisers and three scout cruisers for
which as yet no satisfactory arrangements have been made.

" The battle cruisers were advertised on October 2, 1916, and bids were
opened on December 6, 1916. No bids at a fixed price were received for the
construction of these vessels, but bids were received from four private
shipbuilding companies to construct these battle cruisers on a basis of cost
plus profit. . . . The cost of direct labor and material for these vessels,
although not a simple matter, can be obtained during the course of their
construction with a reasonable degree of accuracy. It is not, however, so
easy to apportion fairly and accurately the indirect cost.

" The bids as received proposed that the Government pay the actual cost
of direct labor and material, plus a percentage to cover the indirect costs,
plus a percentage for profit. The Department felt unwilling to place con-
tracts on this basis without thorough investigation, as the proposed per-
centages for indirect costs differed in the various bids and might or might
not be a measure of the actual cost of building the ship. Several confer-
ences have been held with representatives of the shipbuilders, who have also
given the Department experts access to their books, in order that some
basis of agreement might be reached in regard to the questions involved
in the indirect cost.

" The Department finally requested the Fore River Shipbuilding Cor-
poration and the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company to
submit in writing their best final offer for the construction of the battle
cruisers.

" The Fore River Corporation in a letter dated January 4, 1917, submitted
a revised proposal and estimate of cost for one battle cruiser, taking
account of certain modifications permitted by the Department, as follows :

Material. Labor.

Hull $4,653,000 $3,259,000

Machinery 5,901,500 777. 700

Total Material $10,554,500 $4,036,700

Total Labor 4,036,700

$14,591,200

" Accepting the above figures as base cost, the letter says the company is
prepared to construct, in accordance with the terms of its previous proposal,
one battle cruiser for the actual direct material and direct labor cost, plus
35 per cent of such cost to cover all overhead charges and profit. This 35
per cent amounts to $5,106,920, making the total estimated cost of the vessel
to the Government $19,698,120.

" It is further proposed that in case the actual costs are less than $14,591,-
200, the company will receive, in addition to such amount, 35 per cent of the
same and one-half of the difference between such amount and $14,591,200.

386 Professional Notes

In case the cost exceeds $14,591,200. the company shall be entitled to 35
per cent of such sum, but shall refund to the Government 25 per cent of
the excess of the actual direct material and direct labor costs beyond
$14,591,200."

Secretary Daniels continues : " The Department had previously informed
the representatives of the shipbuilders that it considered the percentage of
35 per cent named by them too high. The Department also regarded the
estimate for material submitted by the shipbuilders as unduly high. This
question is being taken up with various material contractors, and the
Department will be prepared at an early date to make final report and
recommendation with reference to the minimum limit of cost for these
vessels if built by contract.

■' Tt is evident that in any case the cost will exceed the limit of $16,500,000
of the authorizing Act. This Act also allowed an additional sum of 20 per
cent as premium ' to provide for the speedy construction of the vessels
herein authorized and for the additional cost incident thereto.' Adding 20
per cent to the limit of $16,500,000, we reach a limit of $19,800,000, and
apparently the Department could at the present time contract for these
vessels with a prospect of not exceeding that limit. The four bids that were
received provide, in two cases, for construction within 48 months ; in one
case for construction within 51 months, and in the other case no time is
named. The shipbuilders state that they can do no better as regards time
under the present and prospective conditions of the industry.

" Without specific authorization, the Department would not feel justified
in entering into a contract exceeding the limit of $16,500,000, even if under
the limit of $19,800,000, in view of the fact that the times named for con-
struction could not be considered as ' speedy.' It has been suggested that
the act in authorizing the additional 20 per cent for ' speedy ' construction
did not define the latter. Some light, however, is thrown upon the intention
of Congress in this connection by the fact that while the bill was in the
House, on a yea-and-nay vote on an amendment requiring, among other
things, that five battle cruisers should be completed within two years frdm
date of contract, there were, yeas 183, nays 189.

" As regards the scout cruisers, when bids were opened for these four
vessels on November i, 1916, but one bid was received on the basis of a
fixed price, this being for one vessel for the sum of $4,975,000, and within
the limit of cost of $5,000,000; contract was awarded for this vessel. The
remaining three vessels were readvertised, and bids were opened on
January 3, 1917. A bid was received from only one company, the price
named being $5,900,000 for one vessel, or $5,825,000 for each of two
vessels. This leaves one scout cruiser for which no bids have been
received. The bids of January 3, 1917, were below the limit of $5,000,000,
plus 20 per cent, but as the times named were 40 and 42 months, the addi-
tional 20 per cent for ' speedy ' construction is not regarded as available
any more than in the case of the battle cruisers.

" To sum up : The Department has made earnest and strenuous efforts
to carry out the provisions of the Act and to begin at the earliest date
possible the construction of the 66 vessels directed therein to be begun
as soon as practicable. It has been found impossible to place satisfactory
contracts for the whole of the vessels with the private shipyards of the
country, and, as previously stated, our present navy yard facilities are
fully obligated.

" In view of this fact, and in view of additional vessels of the program
which must be taken in hand in the comparatively near future, it seems to
the Department necessary that the Government building facilities should
be largely expanded, so that the navy may be in a position to build a much
larger part of the program than at present. This expansion, in view of
present conditions, appears to be inevitable and necessary. Should Congress
authorize it, the Department will do its utmost to fit up the yards at the
earliest possible moment."

Professional Notes 387

Comment on the Shipbuilding Situation. — The Scientific American,
in its issue of December 22,, comments editorially on the necessity for
speeding up naval construction as follows :

" One of the most encouraging facts in the naval situation, just now, is
the zeal with which Secretary Daniels is applying himself to the problem
of getting the steel makers and shipyards to undertake the construction of
the large number of warships authorized in the Bill for Naval Extension,
recently passed, and put the work through as a rush order. As the Secre-
tary states in his report, it is one thing to make large appropriations for a
new navy, but it is quite another thing to build it.

" So far as the Navy Department is concerned, it must be admitted that,
from the very moment at which the navy bill became law, it bent all its
energies to expediting the work of construction, and great credit is due to
Rear Admiral Taylor and the Bureau of Construction and Repair for the
celerity with which it got out the plans and specifications for the new battle-
ships, battle cruisers, scouts, destroyers and submarines, so as to have this
material in the hands of the prospective bidders at the earliest possible
date. Had the steel makers and private shipyards shown something of the
same commendable zeal, the prospects of getting our new navy built and
put in commission at a speed commensurate with the urgency of the situa-
tion, would not to-day be so exceedingly disappointing.

" It seems that, so long as our contractors have to do with a type of ship
which conforms closely to those which they have just launched from their
ways, they are willing to put in bids to do the work within the standard
time of from three to three and a half years, in which previous ships have
been built. But when the Department gets out plans for a new type of
ship, the contractors, judging from the experience had in the attempt to
secure satisfactory bids for the fast battle cruisers and scouts, either fight
shy of the proposals altogether, or else they demand a length of time for
construction which is altogether out of the question.

" Take the case of the bids for the new battle cruisers, which ranged, if we
remember rightly (in so far as the time element is concerned), from 48 to
52 months for completion. Now 52 months is just four years and four
months, which means that these ships would not be tried, accepted, put into
commission and shaken down into thorough working condition until at
least five years after the contracts had been let. It is all very well for the
contractors to safeguard their own interests. In fact, it is perfectly proper
that they should do this. But what about the interests of the country at
large? So rapid is the present day development in size, power and speed
of warships, that even these fast scouts and battle cruisers may be out-
speeded and outgunned, and may be entering upon the first years of their
obsolescence, in five or six years from the present writing.

" Even if we make allowance for high wages, scarcity of skilled labor, and
the difficulty of obtaining materials, this demand of the contractors that
they should be given from 48 to 52 months in which to build a capital ship
is simply preposterous, and we can prove it by the following facts :

" We know of at least two of the leading shipbuilding yards on the Clyde
in which there have recently been completed two superdreadnoughts, sister
ships, of approximately the same length (85a feet) as our proposed battle
cruisers, armed with 10 or 12 guns of 16-inch caliber or over, and protected
with the heaviest armor, each of which was designed and built in approxi-
mately 18 months' time. The Scientific American publishes these facts on
the very best authority and they may be accepted as absolutely correct.

" Now, the full significance of this will be appreciated when we rernember
that there could have been no opportunity to accumulate the material ad-
jacent to the building-ways beforehand, so as to secure a spectacular result
in speedy construction ; for the p!ans„ were not commenced until 18
months before the ship was commissioned. Moreover, the ships were built

388 Professional Notes

at a time when the whole of the engineering industries of the country were
going under full pressure in the production of military material of every
conceivable kind.

" This remarkably rapid construction result was made possible by a com-
bination of conditions ; conditions which we may, and should, repeat in this
country ; conditions, which, if we bring them about, will make it possible
for us to turn out capital ships just as rapidly as are the British. These
conditions are, first, that the government work is given absolute pre-
cedence over private work ; and, secondly, that the equipment of the yards,
both in machinery and men, is worked up to its full capacity. In the case
of the British yards, work goes on in two shifts of 10 hours each, with four
hours' interval for overhaul.

" Comparing this with the time actually occupied in construction of our
more recent dreadnoughts, we find that the New York (starting, of course,
with plans already completed) was launched in 14 months after the lay-
ing of her keel, and the Arizona in 16 months, and that each ship was
completed in 36 months. This rate of construction was obtained with only
one shift of men, working eight hours per day. It is the opinion of our
constructors that with three shifts of eight hours each, the time could be
cut down to 18 months. Both these ships were built at the New York
Navy Yard.

" It is claimed by the private shipbuilding yards that the impossibihty of
guaranteeing quick construction is due, in large part, to the difficulty of
securing early deliveries of steel, and that, even if these were available,
there would still remain the difficulty of securing the requisite number of
skilled mechanics. Both of these objections could be overcome if the legis-
lation suggested by the Secretary of the Navy were put upon the statute
books ; and we agree with him that a law should be passed at once, render-
ing it obligatory upon the steel makers and the shipbuilding yards to give
the absolute preference to naval work. If this be done, no hardship will
be imposed upon the steel makers ; for the sum total of naval and military
tonnage would form but an insignificant percentage of the total output of
our vast steel making plants.

" Thus, the total tonnage required for this year's naval contracts is 383,800
tons ; whereas the total output of finished rolled iron and steel in the United
States last year was 24,392,924 tons ; so that the naval requirements con-
stitute only 1^4 per cent of the country's output.

" If, with a view to expediting work, the shipbuilding firms were required
to put. say. two shifts, upon the more important naval construction, the
cost of the ships to the nation would be higher, but the higher cost due to
higher pay would be more than compensated for by the rapidity with which
the magnificent naval program of igii7 would become available in the
country's first line of defense."

Cancels Awards for Three Submarines. — Contracts for the construc-
tion of three coast defense submarines, which had been awarded to the
California Shipbuilding Company, Long Beach, Cal., were cancelled by the
Navy Department on January 9 at the company's request. The contracts
were immediately taken over, two by the Electric Boat Company, of New
London, Conn., and the other by the Lake Torpedoboat Company, of
Bridgeport, Conn. Of the 27 coast defense submersibles authorized by the
last Congress, this final apportionment gives 20 to the Electric and seven
to the Lake company. The California company originally bid for the
construction of five or six submarines of the coast defense type, but the
Department decided not to award it more than three, that being regarded as
the capacitv Hmit of the plant for completed work in the time specified.
The contracts for these had not been signed when the request reached the
Department that the award be cancelled.

Professional Notes t,8<.)

Bids for Navy Shells. — The opening of the bids for armor-piercing
shells for the U. S. Navy with the revelation of the fact that a
British firm underbid, by a considerable margin, the American concerns
making projectiles has stirred up considerable discussion in the Navy
Department and among the interested manufacturers on both sides of the
ocean. Examination of the bids on January 4 showed that Hadfields, Ltd.,
of England, agreed to supply 3000 16-inch projectiles in 16 months at $513
each, duty paid. The Bethlehem Steel Company asked $775 each, to provide
4000 in 36 months, while the price from the Midvale Steel Company was
$900 each for 1000 in 24 months. For 14-inch shells Hadfields, Ltd., offer a
price of $356 each for 4500, which they agree to deliver in 11 months. The
Midvale Steel Company asked $550 each for 5600 shells, to be delivered in
30 months, while the Crucible Steel Company wanted $543.50 each for 2000,
deliverable in 34 months.

On January 5 Secretary Daniels charged that American steel companies
had been demanding extortionate prices for shells for the navy. He based
this on the bids of Hadfields, Ltd., which for armor-piercing projectiles was
from 35 to 40 per cent lower than bids of American concerns. Charles M.
Schwab, of the Bethlehem Steel Company, issued a statement on the same
day that reads : " At Bethlehem we have spent very large sums of money
trying to meet Government specifications on 14-inch shells, and so far only
at a considerable loss, for the reason that the tests have been so severe
that we have not yet been able to meet them. Since the war started,
although we have been able to obtain abroad almost any price for our
product, we have adhered in our charges to the United States Government
to the basis of prices established before the war began. We believed it
would be dangerous for this country to be dependent upon foreign manu-
facturers for war material of any kind. We bid what we consider a fair
price on any specifications issued by the Government."

H. A. Gillis, the American representative of Hadfields, Ltd., said to a
New York Sun correspondent in Washington : " I do not believe the
American firms have been charging the Government imreasonable prices.
To my mind the steel companies are simply calculating upon a fair profit
after meeting the increasingly difiicult specifications. The Bureau of Ord-
nance of the Navy Department now requires that these shells be tested by
being fired at steel plate which is at an angle of 10 degrees when the
projectile strikes. This, of course, robs the shell of part of its striking
force and makes the test more difficult. In some instances half the shells
fail to meet the Government's requirements on this account. And the
Government must realize that this may result in increasing the price,
especially if a concern has virtually to make two shells to sell the Govern-
ment one.

" We contend that we are able to provide armor-piercing shells which
will meet this test, and we do not anticipate any of the trouble or addi-
tional expense to which American firms have been put. Our absolute
confidence in this respect is due to the fact that we know about everything
that can be known concerning the manufacture of armor-piercing shells.
We have provided almost every nation with projectiles, and our present
efficiency is such as to insure the best results and the least cost. Since the
war Hadfields has reached a state of efficiency previously supposed un-
attainable. Not only is every ship in the British Navy fully supplied, but
we have provided an immense surplus stock, which now reposes in store-
houses and is far in excess of any demand that could be made upon it by
the war. To keep our organization busy we have obtained permission from
the British Government to bid for the American Government contract, and
we are ready to put up bond to guarantee that we will meet the specifications
in the time given and at the prices stated." Comment in the English news-
papers bore out all these statements of the Hadfields representative.

Secretary Daniels took the incident as a peg on which to hang a further
argument in favor of the plan for establishing a Government plant for the

390 Professional Notes

manufacture of projectiles. Several memliers of the House Committee on
Naval Affairs took the same ground, pointing to the Hadfields bid incident
as evidence of the wisdom of their course in advocating such a plant.

It is understood that at the conference between the Secretary of the
Navy and representatives of the Bethlehem, Crucible and Midvale Steel
companies at the Navy Department, on January lo, slight reductions were
oft'ered in the bids submitted by the American manufacturers in the recent
proposals for navy ammunition. These reductions, however, did not bring
the bids from domestic concerns anywhere near that of Hadfields, Ltd.,
the British company, and it was probable that it will receive a contract for
a large part of the needed shells. — Army and Navy Journal, 13/1.

Engineer-in-Chief of the Navy Discusses Electric Drive. — Rear
Admiral R. S. Griffin, engineer-in-chief, U. S. Navy, has answered fully
and completely the statements made by Mr. S. S. Wheeler to Senator
Swanson, of Virginia, in connection with the use of the electric drive in
the new battle cruisers. His communication is addressed to Mr. Padgett,
Chairman of the House Committee on Naval Affairs, before which hearings
of shipbuilders in regard to this matter will be held next Wednesday. Rear
Admiral Griffin's letter, dated January 5, follows :

1. In compliance with your request that I comment on any statements
of fact or opinions, contained in a letter from Mr. Schuyler S. Wheeler to
Senator Swanson, on the subject of electric drive for our battle cruisers,
I have the honor to submit the following :

2. The first statement of Mr. Wheeler is that " the dynamos and motors
each have to be large enough to equal the engines in power, and the engines
are of 180,000 horse-power." The inference here is clear that each dynamo
and each motor must be of 180,000 horse-power, which is far from the fact,
and goes to show how one unfamiliar with the subject he is discussing
may be led into error. The power of the ship is divided into four units of
45,000 horse-power each.

3. His first expression of opinion follows immediately upon this inaccu-
rate statement and is :

" I believe that such substitution will be a great mistake and that after
completion the ships will be found quite inferior to those having mechan-
ical drive."

Such an opinion has value exactly in proportion to the experience of the
one who expresses it and to his standing as an expert in such matters, and
it is therefore necessary that Mr. Wheeler's competency in the matter under
consideration be fully inquired into. I happened to be in the Secretary's
office the day Mr. Wheeler called to see him, which was, I think, the day
before lie saw Senator Swanson, and the Secretary invited me to hear
what Mr. Wheeler had to say. He commenced by reciting substantially
what is included in his letter to Senator Swanson. and which was quickly
recognized as the argument of another who is financially interested in the
adoption of mechanical gearing and who has been very active in enlisting
opposition to electric drive. Mr. Wheeler was asked how it happened that
he should be so familiar with certain features of the design of the battle
cruisers, the data of which were supposed to be confidential between the
Navy Department and the shipbuilders, but he gave no satisfactory reply as

Professional Notes 391

to the sf)urce of his information, contenting himself with the statement that
he had " been told so." He was then asked whether he had ever had any
experience with machinery for naval vessels and replied that he had not,
but that he had had wide experience with electric machinery as applied to
installations on shore. As he admitted his inexperience with naval machin-
ery, but nevertheless presumed to advise the Secretary in regard to the
most important installation ever contemplated, he was asked what type of
machinery he would suggest for the battle cruisers, and notwithstanding
his lack of knowledge of the requirements he unblushingly replied that he
would recommend geared drive. Asked if he had had experience with such
equipment, he said that he had, and when further pressed as to the power
of the installations to which his experience extended, he replied that the
largest was about 1000 horse-power. Finally, he was asked if he had any
doubt that the electrical machinery which we contemplated installing would
operate satisfactorily, and to this he replied that he had not. As satis-
factory operation was the one thing we were looking for, and as the mili-
tary features of the design of the ship as a whole far outweighed any other
feature except this one of satisfactory operation, there seemed to be no
reason for prolonging the interview, and Mr. Wheeler withdrew.

4. Mr. Wheeler says further that the application of electric drive in the
battle cruisers would not be a success ; that it would injure the electric art
before the public ; that it would greatly increase the weight in the ships ;
that it would take up an immense amount of room ; that it is experimental,
and that satisfactory bids would not be obtained for the ships on account
of the electric drive.

5. Taking these up in order, it may be said that the Navy Department has
the best possible reason for believing that electric drive will be a success ;
that we are the only people who have had extended experience with it ;
that that experience has been unqualifiedly satisfactory, and that the ship
in which it is installed is so superior to the sister ship with geared drive
as to put her in an entirely different class so far as reliability of operation
and economy are concerned.

6. As to injury to the electric art, this opinion is, of course, predicated
on the failure of the electric drive. But we have Mr. Wheeler's own state-
ment that it will operate satisfactorily, and we have also the statement of
another engineer who is interested in geared drive and whose arguments
Mr. Wheeler uses, that he would not go so far as to say that electric drive
will not work satisfactorily. Besides this, we have the opinion of eminent
electrical engineers that no difficulties are involved in the installation. There
need not therefore be any apprehension about the electric art suffering by
reason of this application of it.

7. Mr. Wheeler seems to be much concerned over the weight of the
electric machinery, as if that had not been considered in the design of the
ship, and he undoubtedly is under the impression, for he states it in another
paragraph, that the ships with electric drive will be 1000 tons heavier than
they would be if they had geared drive. Here again those who gave Mr.
Wheeler confidential information regarding the design of these ships did
not tell him the whole story. If they had, they would have told him that,

392 Professional Notes

although the geared drive is per se much lighter than the electric, its use
brings in its train a large increase in weight of steam piping and valves,
infinitely greater complication, and, in addition, adds about 300 tons more
armor, the net result for the ship as a whole being an increase of about
300 tons instead of 1000.

8. As to the space occupied, no other type of machinery than electric
can be installed in the space available, and no other type can give the under-
water protection to the ship that is possible with electric drive.

9. Mr. Wheeler cannot have kept posted on what has been going on dur-
ing the past four years if he regards electric drive for ship propulsion
experimental. The Jupiter has been in commission for three and a half
years and engaged in duty of a character to bring out any weak points in the
design. That she has been an unqualified success is a fact well known to all
prominent marine engineers and to many electrical engineers, and it is
rather surprising that Mr. Wheeler should not be informed about her.

ID. Mr. Wheeler's opinion regarding the difficulty in getting satisfactory
bids for electric drive is not borne out by the bids received. Three firms
bid — the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., the William
Cramp & Sons Ship and Engine Building Co., the Fore River Shipbuild-
ing Corporation, and the Union Iron Works Corporation. (The Union
Iron Works offered to build on the plans of Fore River, and, as both are
subsidiaries of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, the bids of these two
companies may be considered one bid.) The Newport News Co. and the
Cramp Co. bid only on electric drive. The Fore River Co. bid on electric
drive and also on geared drive. In no case was a straight bid received, each
firm offering to build on a cost-plus-percentage basis. The Fore River Co.
did not make a different proposition in the one case than in the other, and
therefore no qualification was made on account of the use of electric drive,

11. Mr. Wheeler states that he has since the opening of bids met two of
the shipbuilders and learne(f that the shipbuilders, at a conference with the
Department, had urged geared drive, but that nothing but electric drive
would be considered. Here again Mr. Wheeler is suffering from lack of
knowledge of matters which he is discussing and evidently did not learn
his lesson well. No conference was held with shipbuilders regarding geared
drive for the battle cruisers. The conference to which he refers was in
reference to the battleships.

12. He again shows his lack of exact knowledge when he says that one
of the shipbuilders submitted a letter stating that, with mechanical drive, he
would guarantee 1000 tons less weight and $1,300,000 less cost. Such a
letter was not submitted. Mr. Wheeler may have been told so, but there
was no guaranty of anything, the shipbuilder merely stating that the weight
of machinery would be about 1000 tons less, and that he " estimated " that
it would cost $1,300,000 less than the electric drive. So far as guarantees
are concerned, the figures might just as easily have been doubled ; they do
not commit anybody to anything.

13. Right here it may be well to point out the fact that the people who
have given Mr. Wheeler information have not given him all the facts. I
have indicated in paragraph 7 that the difference in weight is nothing like

Professional Notes 395

"what the advocates of geared drive claim ; but be the difference in cost what
it may, the cost of the additional 300 tons of armor which must be supplied
with the geared-drive installation will counterbalance any difference in
■cost of machinery. Of course, Mr. Wheeler does not know about this, and
those who have been prompting him took care not to tell him. As you
know, armor is purchased from an appropriation other than that for the
construction of the ship, and therefore its cost would not appear in the
contract price of the ship, as it is supplied by the Government and installed
"by the contractor. The Government would nevertheless have to pa}" the

14. Mr. Wheeler is correct in his statement that there is a gain in economy
of operation at full speed with the geared drive ; but this gain is small.
At all speeds below 30 knots — and nearly all cruising will be done at the
lower speeds — the superiority is with the electric drive and is so recognized
by engineers.

15. The advantage in having all boilers below the protective deck is great,
provided they can be given adequate protection against torpedo attack, but
it should be remembered that these ships will make 30 knots even if all the
boilers above the protective deck are out of action. The arrangement of
machinery submitted by the only shipbuilder who offered geared drive was
far more objectionable in that a very important portion of the equipment
which should be protected is above the deck.

16. Mr. Wheeler's statement that a simple contract with simple guaranties
•could be made if mechanical drive is used is answered by the statement that
the only shipbuilder who offered geared drive submitted the identical
proposition with that which he submitted for electric drive.

17. When Mr. Wheeler comes to discuss the extent to which geared drive
is used in the British Navy, he is clearly making statements about which
lie cannot possibly have personal knowledge. The best information of the
Navy Department is that the British Navy has not in service battle cruisers
•of the power stated, nor indeed any under construction of anything like
that power. The Navy Department has had some experience with geared
installations, and this has been of such a nature as to make the transmis-
sion of such high power through gearing appear far more experimental
than by means of electrical transmission.

18. Mr. Wheeler dismisses the important subject of reversing turbines
in a few words, merely stating that nearly all turbine-driven ships use
reversing turbines. Being unfamiliar with naval machinery and the im-
portant role of the reversing turbine, he could not, of course, be expected
to understand the military importance of backing power, nor could he know
the troubles due to backing turbines that have been experienced in turbine-
driven vessels. These troubles exist with the geared drive just as they do
with the straight turbine drive, and any injury to one turbine involves
stopping the ship and putting out of use the shaft to which that turbine is
attached. Should an accident occur to one of the turbines of an electric-
drive installation, it would simply mean a reduction in full speed of about
two knots and this without necessitating stopping the ship. The absence
of backing turbines, the fact that the turbines always run in one direction,

394 Professional Notes

and that full power of the engines can be utilized for backing are features
not only of mechanical advantage, but of such military superiority as to
leave little question as to the type to choose for capital ships.

19. As Mr. Wheeler does not seem to be informed in regard to the
cause of the recent disablement of the Jiit>itcr, it should be stated that it
was due to a small piece of an oil-strainer basket becoming detached and
being carried with the oil to the thrust bearing, causing heating of the
thrust and necessitating stopping the turliine. A new thrust was fitted by
the "ship's force, and the ship proceeded on the duty assigned her. The
trouble was not in the remotest degree associated with her electrical
equipment.

20. Mr. Wheeler concludes by stating that the best design should be
selected, regardless of other considerations, and that the subject should be
■' reviewed by recognized impartial expert authorities." Can it be possible
that Mr. Wheeler assumes that the Navy Department has determined on
this installation without having given the subject most serious considera-
tion? If so, he little knows the thoroughness with which the Department
proceeds in such matters. As to " impartial expert authorities," it must
be patent that the Secretary of the Navy alone can decide who such
authorities are, and that the delegation of his authority to irresponsible
people outside the naval service could not be considered. Under no circum-
stances could the Secretary think of accepting as impartial authorities the
people who communicated confidential information to Mr. Wheeler and
who are pecuniarily interested in the installation of a type of machinery
which the Navy Department does not believe to be suited to the conditions
obtaining in the battle cruisers. In the last analysis the Secretary of the
Navy must decide such matters, aided by the best technical advice he can
obtain. His naval advisers are not interested in any firms that will manu-
facture the machinery for these ships, nor will they receive royalties which-
ever tj-pe is installed. Their only reward will be the satisfaction that may
come to them after the ships are tried — that of duty well done. — .\rniy and
Navy Register, 13/1.

The " E-2's " Batteries. — Although the findings of the special l)oard
appointed by the Secretary of the Navy to investigate the entire matter
of submarine batteries, as a result of the battery explosion on the E-3 last
January, have not been made public as yet, it became known through the
statement made by Engineer-in-Chief Robert S. Griffin, U. S. Navy, before
the House Naval Afifairs Committee, that the report had been received by the
Navy Department. It will be remembered that the first board appointed to
investigate the accident on the E-^ decided that it was due to a generation
of hydrogen in the battery and recommended that no more of the Edison
batteries be used in submarines until the one used in the E-^ had been
thoroughly tested out, and until it was demonstrated that it was a perfectly
safe battery to use.

Engineer-in-Chief Griffin said, in reply to inquiries by members of the
House Committee, that the Navy Department had settled on the Ironclad
battery for the submarine being built at Portsmouth. He also said that
"about the only way that we think of to really solve that problem (of
hydrogen-gas detection) is to have abundant ventilation and to keep the
ventilation going all the time." He explained that in all the lead batteries
there is a generation of hydrogen when tlie liatteries are being charged, and

Professional Notes 395

unless that is carried away quickly there is danger of an explosive mixture
being formed. The point about the Edison battery, he stated, was that " it
gives ofif hydrogen in considerable quantity when reversed." There is also
" about five times as much hydrogen gas liberated on charge m the Edison
as in the lead batteries." That the accumulation of gas is more easily
controlled in lead batteries than in other batteries was also stated. He
added that to the best of his knowledge the defects in the Edison battery
have been partially corrected. — Army and Navy Journal, 16/12.

The Lewis Gun Controversy. — The Secretary of War, on December 17,
issued a statement setting forth the reasons for the rejection of the Lewis
gun, the text, taken from the New York Herald, being in part as follows :

" At various times there have appeared charges and countercharges in
the press with reference to the merits of the Lewis machine gun. The
controversy reached the stage where open letters from high ranking army
officers were published. In order to settle authoritatively the technical
question involved, a board was constituted, the report of which was recently
made public. In addition, the Inspector General of the Army was ordered
to investigate the other aspects of the case. He has now done so, and his
general conclusions are as follows :

" First. There is no official record that Colonel Lewis ever offered a gun
of his invention, through any individtial or through the Board of Ordnance
and Fortification, to the United States Government free or at a price.

" Second. The first and only offer of the gun to the Government, of
record, was made by a representative of the American Arms Company on
September 2, 1913, to the Chief of Ordnance — 100 guns, complete,
at not to exceed $1000 each, and to license the Ordnance Department to
manufacture and use such guns in the United States for a royalty of not to
exceed $150 per gun.

Subjected to Tests. — Third. Such tests as the Lewis gun has been
subjected to have been under a program authorized by the Board of Ord-
nance and Fortification and approved by the Secretary of War, and were
made by boards of officers named in orders from the Adjutant General's
office — one officer of the Ordnance Department on each board.

" Fourth. The Savage Arms Company, through its president, in a letter
to the Chief of Ordnance, with reference to the test conducted in April,
1916, stated:

" ' The company feels that the investigation has been entirely impartial
and regards the board as one very capable of judging the value of the
investigation to the Ordnance Department. We also appreciate the courtesy
shown us by Colonel Peirce and his assistants.'

" The records do not show any hostility on the part of General Crozier
or the Ordnance Department to the Lewis gun, but do show that the
department, by direction of its chief, afforded the owners of this gun every
reasonable facility in placing it before the testing board at the Springfield
Armory.

'■ The Secretary of War has approved these conclusions of the Inspector
General, and in accordance with the latter's recommendation has directed
the controversy to cease."

M.\NUF.\CTURE OF MACHINE GuNS IN THE UNITED STATES. — An interest-
ing article describing the manufacture of machine guns, published in the
January 13 issue of the Scientific American, throws some light on what
may be expected of munitions manufacturers in case of war. It is stated
that the company manufacturing the Colt-Marlin gun was not organized
until late in 1915 and is now turning out 200 complete rifles a day, the
plant at New Haven being, according to the writer of the article, probably
the largest machine gun producing plant in the world.

396 Professional Notes

For Purchase of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. — By a resolu-
tion passed at the last session of Congress the Secretaries of War and Navy
Departments were authorized to appoint a committee of army and navy
experts to make an investigation looking to the purchase of the Chesapeake
and Delaware Canal and report to this session, hence a vigorous effort for
the purchase of that waterway is now under way by those advocating making
the canal a part of the inland route to parallel the Atlantic coast, which is
l)eing urged as a military and commercial necessity. The Atlantic Deeper
Waterways Association is a leading factor in this work and will leave no
effort undone to bring it to success. — Marine Journal, 23/12.

Government Control of Radio Recommended. — The New York Timer
publishes the following account of the project of the Navy Department to
take over the control of coastal radio stations :

Washington. Jan. 2. The purchase by the Government of all existing
coastal and commercial wireless stations in the United States, Alaska,
Hawaii. Porto Rico, and the Swan Islands within two years is recom-
mended liy Secretary Josephus Daniels of the Navy Department in an
official communication made public to-night. Secretary Daniels is urging the
control and ownership of radio communication by the Government as a
matter of national defense and as making for efficiency in naval, military
and commercial work.

The letter was sent under date of December 29 by Mr. Daniels to Senator
Fletcher of Florida, and Representative Alexander of Missouri, who are
the chairmen of the committees in Congress which now have under con-
sideration the Radio Bill proposed by the Interdepartmental Committee.

" The bill," says Secretary Daniels, defining the attitude of the Navy
Department, " covers the purchase of coastal stations only ; that is, only
those used to communicate with ships, and, by permitting the Navy Depart-
ment to open all of its stations to commercial business, discourages the
extension of any existing commercial systems or the organization of new
systems.

■' The Department strongly recommends that the committee provide for
the purchase of all stations used for commercial purposes. In some cases,
the status of existing stations is constantly changing, and decisive action at
this time will result in a saving of public funds. I recommend that Section 6.
of the bill provide for the purchase, through the Navy Department, of all
coastal and commercial stations in the United States, Alaska. Hawaii, Porto
Rico, and the Swan Islands within two years, at reasonable valuation, and
that no license be granted to any such station for operation after two years
from the date of the passage of the bill."

Secretary Daniels indorses the other provisions of the bill, especially
those relating to the ownership, the licensing, and the control of stations
by the Department of Commerce.

" Mr. Daniels explains that the Navy Department " is convinced that
government operation and control of all stations used for commercial
purposes, other than those on board merchant ships, is necessary on account
of the mutual interference between stations."

'■ One station or system," he says, " must wait for another to finish ; there
are many chances for disputes which sometimes are carried on between
operators by radio, especially when the operators are not under strict con-
trol, adding to the time wasted; there is needless duplication of effort, and
in cases of distress the confusion resulting from many interests attempting
to render aid. get news, or satisfy curiosity, is very dangerous.

" Since only by the closest regulation can the best use of this art be
obtained, not only for commerce and safety at sea, but for military
purposes, radio telegraphy is a strict government monopoly with the larger
number of foreign nations, and in those foreign countries where com-
mercial stations are permitted, the government control is generally so
strong as to ama mt to a monopoly.

Professional Notes 397

'■ Authority to take over and operate or to close commercial stations in
time of war will not suffice. The stations must be in full government
operation before the first hint of possible hostilities."

Comment in the press is generally noncommittal, though the following
from SJiipping Illustrated indicates that merchant shipping interests favor
the scheme :

There is but one opinion in shipping circles concerning the proposed
taking over by the Government of all wireless stations in this country. The
amateurs who rig up antennae on the roofs of their dwellings and inter-
fere with the exchange of messages " for the fun of it," are greater nui-
sances than is commonly supposed. Particularly in connection with danger
warnings have these amateurs made themselves obnoxious and it can be
said that at least one ship — that was sunk off Nantucket by the U-53, to
the great discomfort of many Americans — would have escaped but for the
fact that her efforts to elucidate the warning sent her by another ship,
which had run afoul of the submarine, were blocked by interference from
shore, probably on the part of amateurs. In all other countries, wireless
communication is under the control of the government and it is time that
the same policy were adopted here.

The attitude of the Marconi Company is given in the Neiv York Herald
as follows :

Protesting against Secretary Daniels' advocacy of government monopoly
of radio communication, as outlined in a letter addressed to the Commerce
and Marine Committee of the Senate and House, Edward J. Nally, vice-
president and general manager of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Com-
pany of America, declared yesterday that " Government control will tend
to hamper the art of radio comnumication, because the Government has
not the stimulus of commercial competition and the hope of individual
reward, and it is prone to take present accomplishments as finalities."

Another reason assigned by Mr. Nally for opposing the proposed measure
is that " it will effectively stifle the growth of wireless telegraphy and
amounts practically to a confiscation of private interests."

" Moreover," said Mr. Nally, " it is against the established principle of
the American nation, which has heretofore allowed free scope for all work,
and especially work of an experimental nature. There are already ample
laws and regulations giving the United States Government the necessary
power for control of all radio stations in time of war or public peril. In
fact, all ship and shore stations are now, and have been since 1912, operated
under the control and supervision of the Department of Commerce of the
United States. In times of emergency the Marconi Company has repeatedly
offered to place at the disposal of the nation, not only all its operators, but
the equipment of the company and the services of the entire staff. In the
recent Mexican crisis, when American battleships were sent to Vera Cruz,
the Marconi Company, through its president, John W. Griggs, offered to the
Secretary of the Navy the free use of the Marconi coast stations for the
United States Navy, and the offer was accepted."

Mr. Nally said that although the Government had been a large user of
wireless for many years, it had not contributed any of the important
improvements which have been made during that time.

" It would be an interesting study," said Mr. Nally, '| to compare the
present cost to the Government of business handled by its own stations,
message for message, with the cost to private companies for messages and
business handled between private stations. And, finally, if the Government
takes over the radio service it is only a step to federal operation of the
telephone and telegraph systems of the country. It is the entering wedge
to government ownership of these utilities."

Experiments with Protectiv'e Deck Armor. — One of the experiments
of the Navy Department to determine the effectiveness of deck protective

398 Professional Notes

armor was made at Rappahannock Spit on January 8, when the U. S. S.
Oklahoma fired trial 14-inch shells at the U. S. S. Puritan, which had been
specially fitted with a new protective deck designed to keep shell fragments
from penetrating the deck. The Puritan was sunk by the shells, but as she
was moored in shallow water she may be raised. — Arm\ and Navy Journal,
l3/i-

Milwaukee Aground. — On January 13 the cruiser Milwaukee grounded
near Humboldt Bay while engaged in salvage operations on the submarine
H-s. Press reports indicate that it will be impossible to float the vessel, but
it is understood that her machinery and equipment can be salvaged without
difficulty. Press reports state that the Milwaukee, at the time of the acci-
dent, was in a dense fog and had a line attached to the H-3 when she was
swept ashore by a heavy current.

The Milwaukee is a first-class cruiser built at the Union Iron Works and
first commissioned in May, 1906. Her displacement is 9700 tons, trial speed
22.22 knots, armament 14 6-inch and 18 3-inch guns.

Salvage Operations on " H-3.'" — Attempts to float the H-3 have so far
been unsuccessful and the New York Herald says that a contract to float
the vessel was, on January 14, entered into with a private concern.

UNITED STATES NAVAL MILITLV AND NAVAL
RESERVE

Winter Training for Naval Volunteers. — The winter season of civilian
naval training, which the Navy Department evolved out of last summer's
" Naval Plattsburg " plan, was begun in the navy yard. New York, on
January 8. Eighty-six students reported for instruction on board the
U. S. S. Nezv Jersey for the afternoon session and 55 for the evening class.
Commander Louis A. Kaiser, U. S. Navy, overlooked the work of the classes,
but the actual instructors and their subjects are: Lieut. Randolph P.
Scudder, ordnance and gunnery; Lieut. (J. G.) Ewart G. Haas, navigation;
and Lieut. Sherwoode A. Taffinder, marine engineering. Most of the
members of the winter classes took part in the civilian naval training cruise
last summer. — Army and Navy Journal, 13/1.

Department Plan for Civilian Naval Training. — The Naval Training
Association of the United States, which is to the civilian naval training
movement, what the United States Military Training Camps Association is
to the Plattsburg movement, announced yesterday that the Navy Department
was arranging an elementary course in naval training for civilians who
desired to fit themselves for service with the navy in the event of war. The
training will be followed by training cruises on reserve battleships next
summer.

The new departure, which is in line with the Navy Department program
to create an adequate naval reserve force in this country, is one of the
results of the training cruise for civilians held last summer. More than
2000 men, from all parts of the country, enlisted for that cruise.

" The Navy Department," the announcement issued from the head-
quarters of The Naval Training Association, 31 Nassau Street, reads,
" proposes to establish naval training stations for civilians at Newport,
Norfolk, Chicago and .San Francisco, and probably at Pensacola. At these
camps civilians will be trained for a period of a month, the instruction
being the same as is given recruits for the active service.

Professional Notes 399

" Those civilians who underwent a course of training last summer will
have the opportunity for a further and more advanced course of training
on battleships of the United States Atlantic Reserve Fleet. Ten or twelve
battleships of the reserve divisions, under command of a tlas^ officer, will be
detailed for this purpose. Already arrangements have been completed
wherein' civilians in certain of our seaports will have the opportunity to
get preliminary training on battleships, the drills and instruction being so
arranged that the tours at the training camps and on the ships next summer
will be of more value to the civilian than would be the case did he not
receive the preliminary instruction.

"The battleships North Dakota and Minnesota have been detailed for
these drills and instructions at Philadelphia, and the battlship Netv Jersey
has been deailed at New York. It is estimated that fully 10,000 civilians will
take advantage of the opportunity afforded them by the Navy Department
for courses of training at camps and on battleships during the ensuing
summer.

" The time of holding the camps of instruction and cruises are tentatively
arranged to take place between July 2 and August 4. Should more civilians
apply to take the course of training afforded by the Department than can be
accommodated by the training camps and battleships in one period, the
Department proposes to have additional periods of instruction so that all
who volunteer may be instructed.

" To provide motor boat squadrons for use as patrol and dispatch vessels
and other duties in connection with the defense of the coast in time of
war. the Department will undertake to form and train motor boat squadrons
in accordance with the provisions of the Act of Congress of August 2Q,
1916, whereby owners and operators of motor boats may join the naval
coast defense reserve. Under existing law the Department is authorized
to establish schools or camps of instruction for the purpose of instructing
members of the naval reserve force and those civilians who desire to fit
themselves for such membership. Members of the naval reserve force
receive small retainer pay, and their expenses are paid by the Government.

" In order to make the Naval Reserve attractive to those civilians who
desire to volunteer their services for training as naval reservists the Depart-
ment proposes to recommend to Congress that the term of enrolimenc and
re-enrollment in the Naval Volunteer Reserve be one year. Civilians who
qualify for and enroll in the Naval Volunteer Reserve will have their
expenses for transportation and subsistence defrayed by the Department.

" At the present time the Department is enabled to furnish gasoline and
oil to the boats of the motor boat squadron. The department proposes to
ask the Congress also to furnish fuel and oil to other than gasoline boats
that are suitable for use in patrol squadrons." — Neiv York Times, 27/12.

ENGINEERING

Results of Diesel Engine Trials in U. S. Navy. — While the trial trip
of the U. S. fuel ship Maumee has proven her to be a success, there must
be some radical changes in the Diesel engines with which she is equipped
if they are to prove a success in battleships or other vessels requiring a
high rate of speed. The Maumee has been sent to the New York yard for
some alterations in her machinery, after which she will have another trial.
Unless she shows more speed than she has up to date the Maumee may be
the last large navy ship to be equipped with Diesel engines. The chief
objection to the Diesel engine is the large amount of heat which it gen-
erates. This difficulty can be overcome in ships of lower speed, but appar-
ently not in engines of high power. The Maumee experiments show that
the Diesel engine would be a success in tramp ships and vessels of this class.
— Army and Navy Journal. 16/12.

400 Professional Notes

A New Method of Salvaging Sunken Ships. — Interest has been aroused
in Brazilian technical circles by a recent lecture at the Club de Engenharia
(Engineers' Club) of Rio de Janeiro, by Dr. Sylvio Pellico Portella, con-
cerning his invention for the salvage of sunken ships. It is claimed by
him that the invention is applicable to ships sunk at almost any depth, so
long as divers are able to reach them, and that it is effective in putting a
wreck afloat, no matter what its position on the sea fioor.

The invention consists of a tender of special model, which is equipped
with floats of waterproof material. These are neatly folded, but later,
when inflated with air, they assume all sorts of shapes — parallelepipeds,
spheres, cylinders, etc. They are carried down by divers and attached to
various portions of the sunken vessel, both within and without, still retain-
ing their connection by means of hose with the tender ship. When all are
properly fastened in place they are inflated by air pressure from above, like
the tires of an automobile. As they swell they are said gradually to displace
the water within and about the wreck, and it is claimed that by their own
buoyancy they float it to the surface. It is said that the invention had two
trials in Paris. — Scientific American, 30/12.

SUBMARINES

The Ideal Submarine. — It seems to be necessary for every type of war-
ship to pass through a phase of its development in which the matter of
size is the all-absorbing question. Usually the disputants are divided into
two schools,_ one of which believes in putting displacement into the biggest
practical units, combining the maximum of speed, power and defense, the
other believing that displacement should be distributed among a large
number of smaller craft, which, though individually weak, would be over-
whelming when they attacked in mass.

Invariably (and students of naval construction should take careful note
of this) the advocates of great power and speed have won out, and in this
connection it is significant that the latest designs for our own navy call for
42,000-ton battleships, 35,000-ton battle cruisers, 7000-ton scouts and 1200-
ton destroyers, all of these classes, save the battleships, to have 35 knots
speed.

It is only when we come to the submarines that we find the old con-
troversy still raging. A few of our naval men and, alas, the majority of
our Congressmen, are still clinging to the belief in the efficiency of
mosquito craft. They believe that a host of 500-ton coast-defense boats
of moderate speed and small sea-going power, would afford a better defense
than a smaller number of boats, twice their size, of greater speed, of wide
radius of action, of great powers of offense, and capable of going out with
the main fleet to tackle the enemy a thousand miles off shore, if need be.

The principle of compromise controls all naval construction and it is
particularly insistent when we come to the submarine. The sea-going
officer asks for certain qualities in an ideal submarine, and the naval con-
structor too often finds that within the limits of size imposed, the com-
bination of these qualities in the degree asked for is impossible. It is
largely because of this fact that the Department some time ago detailed
a naval constructor, Mr. E. S. Land, to duty with the submarine flotilla,
and during a period of many months he lived aboard our submarines, mak-
ing many trips of greater or less duration. This practice of sending naval
constructors to sea for observation is excellent, and we believe that it
could be extended to very good effect. A notable instance was the dispatch
of Naval Constructor Robinson with the fleet in its famous voyage around
the world. Indeed, we are of the opinion that it would be advisable for
every naval constructor, at stated intervals, to spend a certain amount of
time with the fleet.

Professional Notes 401

In his recent testimony before the House Committee on Naval Affairs,
Mr. Land gave it as his opinion, based upon his experiences at sea, that
the ideal boat for the United States Navy would be one of between 750
and 050 tons displacement and from 225 to 250 feet in length. A prelim-
inary estimate shows that a boat of this size could be built with a surface
speed of from 17 to 19 knots and a submerged speed which might reach
14 knots. It could carry a powerful armament of torpedoes and rapid-
fire guns, and it would provide comfortable berthing accommodations for
the crew — this last a most important consideration in submarine work.
A submarine of this size would be capable of keeping the sea and
maneuvering in company with the main fleet ; something which our present
submarine of 400 to 500 tons displacement cannot do.

Since increased size brings such manifest advantages, the question
naturally arises : Why not go yet higher and build submarines of 1200 to
1500 tons displacement? The answer is that submarines of this size, with
a length of from 300 to 400 feet, would be impracticable, or at least, in-
advisable ; first, because they would be too slow in submerging, and secondly,
because when submerging, except at very small angles of inclination, they
would run the risk of reaching dangerous depths before they could be
controlled ; dangerous depths being those at which the nose of the boat
may strike bottom, or the hull be subjected to crushing stresses, due to a
water pressure beyond the strength of the boat.

Even at small angles of inclination the manipulation of a submarine,
300 to 400 feet long, at high speed below the surface might carry the boat
to dangerous depths before she could be controlled. A speed of 12 knots is
equivalent to 20 feet per second ; and it would not take many seconds to
carry the vessel beyond the danger line.

Swift submergence, so necessary when attacked, becomes more difficult
with the increase in size of the submarine, and it is believed that 800 to 900
tons marks the limit, beyond which submergence is too slow to ensure
safety against being rammed by a destroyer or submarine chaser. Sub-
mergence depends upon ability to destroy the reserve buoyancy by filling"
the ballast tanks, and the speed of filling depends upon the size of the
valves. If the valves are big they are difficult to keep tight and the pres-
sures upon them are such that they cannot be operated rapidly by man-
power.

Limitations of space prevent our following this argument any further ;
but attention should be drawn to the fact that 800 tons is about the displace-
men of the German sea-going submarines which lately have ventured so far
afield. This type preponderates, so far as numbers are concerned, in the
navies of England, Austria and France. Japan and Russia are building
800-ton boats, and at the time of the Naval Affairs Committee examinations
last year, reliable information came from Italy that they had abandoned
the 400- to 500-ton type and were building only boats of from 750 to 950
tons. — Scientific American, 13/1.

AERONAUTICS

Dimensions and Perform.\nces of Superzeppelins. — Figures on the
dimensions and performances of the latest superzeppelins that are appar-
ently authentic are published in Zeit. Four ships have been built at
Friedrichshafen and tested over Lake Constance of which the following
data are of interest : Length, 240 meters ; diameter, 23 meters ; volumetric
contents, 32,000 cubic meters ; horse-poWer, 4000 to 5000 with eight motors ;
maximum climb, 4000 meters : usual climb, 3000 meters ; maximum speed.
120 km. per hour. These dirigibles can carry a munition load of 6000 to
7000 kilograms. — Aviation, 15/12.

402

Professional Notes

Table Showing Probable Zeppelin Losses from August i, 1914, to
January 17, 1917

Place

Date

Z-8*
Z-5*

LZ-31*

■>

L-3*

L-9*
L-8*

LZ-37*
LZ-38*

Badonvillers, France

Mlava, Russia

Seradz, Russia ....

Z-28
L-22*

24 L-19*

25 LZ-77-

26 ] L-15*

27 I L-20*

Diisseldorf, German}
Friedrichshafen, Gei
manv.

North Sea

Esbjerg, Denmark .

Boulogne,. France . .

Tirlemont, Belgium

Thielt. Belgium

North Sea ...

Evere, Belgium
Ghent, Belgium

Ostende, Belgium
Vilna, Russia . . . •

Saint-Hubert, Belgium
Maubeuge, France
Grodno. Russia . .
Tondern, Germany

Hamburg, Germany
Tondern, Germany .

Kalkun, Russia . . .
Mainvault, Belgium

North Sea

Revigny, France . .
Kentish Knock, England
Stavanger, Norway . . . .

28 L-7* I Off Schleswig Coast.

Cause of Loss

8-1914
8-1914
9-1914

- 1-1915

- 2-1915

- 3-1915

- 4-1915

- 5-1915

- 6-1 91 5

- 6-1915

- 8-1915

-10-1915
-10-1915
-11-1915
-11-1915

5-12-1916
30- 1-1916
21- 2-1916

21- 2-I916
I- 4-1916

3- 5-1916

4- 5-I916

Salonika , 5- 5-1916

Enfield, England , 2- 9-1916

L-33*

England
England
England

Russia

England. .
England..
Germany.
Germany.

24-
24-

9-1916
9-1916

I-

10-1916

28-
28-

1I-I9I6

11-1916
n-1916

—

1-1917

—

I-I917

Destroyed by French gunners. Part of

crew lost.
Destroyed by Russian gunners. Crew

lost.
Captured, while at anchorj by a cavalry

patrol. Crew of 30, prisoners.
Destroyed in shed by British aviators.
Destroyed in shed by British aviators.

Foundered during a storm.

Stranded, having run out of fuel, and

broke up. Crew of 16 interned.
Foundered during a storm, after having

raided Calais. - Crew lost.
Damaged by British aviator; wrecked on

landing. 21 of crew killed.
Damaged, over Bethune, by French gun-
ners; wrecked on landing.
Broke away without crew; foundered

off Heligoland.
Destroyed in shed by British aviators.
Destroyed in mid-air by British avia-
tors; crew lost.
Raided London. Destroyed, upon her

return by British aviators.
Shot down by Russian gunners; crew

of 10 made prisoners.
Destroyed by exploding in mid-air.
Stranded on a chimney and broke up.
Destroyed by the storm on landing.
Wrecked in shed through an accidental

explosion.
Wrecked by the storm.
Destroyed in shed through accidental

explosion of a bomb.
Shot down by Russian gunners. Crew

lost.
Raided Paris. Damaged by French avia

tor; wrecked on landing.
Raided England. Probably run out

fuel; foundered. Crew lost.
Shot down by I'rench motor guns; de

stroyed in fall. Crew of 15 killed.
Shot down by British gunners; crew o

18 surrendered. Vessel sank.
Raided Scotland. Stranded, having run

out of fuel and drifted with the witid

Blown up by crew; 3 killed, 16 in

terned.
Shot down by H. M. S. Galatea and

Phaoton, and destroyed by submarine

E-v.
Shot down bv allied warships.
Shot down by aeroplane during raid on

London.

Shot down by anti-aircraft gutis in
Essex while returning from raid on
London.
Shot down by gun fire while attempting

to reach London.
Reported shot down by gun fire.
Shot down at sea by airplanes while
returning from a cross channel raid.
'Unconfirmed report that these two
were destroyed by accidental burn-
_ ing of hangar.

Destruction authenticated.

Professional Notes 403

The Wkight Patents. — The Wright-Martin Aircraft Company has
relinquished the British Wright patents to that government and proposes
that private manufacturers in the United States pay a Hcense for the use
of devices covered by the American patents. The company stipulates a
minimum annual royalty of $io,aoo. Considerable opposition has developed
among airplane manufacturers. The situation is well summarized in the
following editorial from the A^czu York Herald of December 21 :

According to official reports our naval authorities seem to be agreed that
for its purposes the development of air craft has not been commensurate
with their wonderful usefulness as proved by the experiences of war.
Finding it impossible to get what is needed at home they sought to obtain
such machines abroad, where " the exigencies of war have stimulated talent
and manufacture." But this also was impossible, so in lieu of taking
inferior types the Navy Department has been forced to go slowly until its
special problems are nearer solution.

Something of the same impulse may have inspired the Wright-Martin
Aircraft Company in its proposed licensing plan. In a statement furnished
the Herald and published yesterday the president of this corporation
declared that despite the proved safety of flight in properly constructed
machines it is impossible to assure such safety when the instrumentalities
are imperfectly designed. Therefore he declares that some check must be
placed on their production. To effect this the company has decided, first, to
require manufacturers using their patents to take out a license, and,
secondly, to grant such permission only to parties properly equipped finan-
cially and possessing the requisite engineering knowledge for producing
normally safe machines and appliances.

Adverse criticism insists that the real intention of the license is to crush
opposition and to destroy the smaller companies. This charge is no less
insistently denied by the owners of the patents, who declare that their
action is in the real interests of preparedness. Where the government and
the people enter is through a desire to have the safety of the fliers assured,
and thereby hope that the aeroplane business will be organized on lines
which will produce the best possible types in time and in sufficient quantities
to help safeguard the country when the hour of stress and storm approaches.

LESSONS OF THE WAR

Influence of the Torpedo on Ship Construction. — Mr. Arthur Pollen,
the naval expert of Land and Water, says :

" Meantime there is one technical point worth brief examination.

to which the recent raid attracts our attention. In my article last week I
drew attention to the fact that in the German account of the August sortie,
in which Falmouih and Nottingham were torpedoed, it was asserted by the
enemy that it took three torpedoes, fired at an interval of two hours
between the first and the last, before Falmouth was sunk. It has been
rumored that Nottingham had to be hit more often even than this before
she was disposed of. Last week we learned that the Mucnchen had been
torpedoed by a submarine and had yet made her way home. These incidents
are in line with a great many more narrated in the Jutland despatch. In
that document, my readers will remember. Sir John Jellicoe and Sir David
Beatty gave the details of 11 separate instances in which our destroyers
fired torpedoes successfully against the German ships, and in only one
instance, namely the attack led by Captain Ansalan Stirling, was it stated
as certain that the torpedoed ship'blew up. In all the other cases, many of
which occurred in the course of the.daylight action, it was not even claimed
that the injured ship had to leave the line. In the British fleet, of course,

404. Professional Xotes "

only Marlborough was hit, and the excellence of her shooting afterwards,
and the ease with which she kept her place in the line and then made her
way home under her own steam, were duly emphasized by the commander-
in-chief. Last August year it may be remembered, the German battle cruiser
Moltkc was torpedoed in the Gulf of Riga and won back to Kiel all across
the Baltic Sea without difficulty. Now the Admiralty communique tells
us that the Nubian, whose sides and bulkheads must be of the frailest
possible, not only survived torpedo attack, but was in a condition in which
she could be tov/ed home.

" All this stands in sharp contrast with the fate of the older vessels that
fell to submarines in the earlier part of the war. Aboukir. Cressy, Hague,
Niger, Hermes, Formidable, Triumph. Majestic and the rest were utterly
doomed from the moment they were hit. It seems clear then that during
the last 10 years naval constructors have provided against underwater
attack with very singular success. 1 am, of course, far from suggesting that
a single torpedo could not possibly sink the stoutest battleship in the world.
But it certainly is startling and, as it seems to me. extremely consoling, that
here we have nearly 20 cases of modern ships being torpedoed, of
which only one was known to have proved fatal. The experience of
Jutland, then, is on all fours with an almost equal number of cases before
and since, and this may not improbably prove one of the most important
lessons of that most instructive engagement."

^[ISCELLAXEOUS

Another Slide at Panama. — On January 10 a slight movement of the
old Cucaracha slide occurred, part of the bank breaking off and reducing
the width of the channel, while an upheaval of the bottom reduced the
depth. In two days, despite further slight movement of the slide, the
channel had been cleared to a depth of 22 feet and a width of 100 feet.

CURRENT NA\ AL AND PROFESSIONAL PAPERS
UNITED STATES

World's Work. January. — The Next Five Years of the Navy, by Rear
Admiral Bradley A. Fiske.

Aviation. December 15. — Possible Improvements in Carrying Capacity
and Speed of Rigid Airships, by C. Domic r (Count von Zeppelin's
Engineer). A Time Controlled Aerial Torpedo, by JVillard G. Moore.

Flying. January. — Aeroplane vs. Captive Balloon, by A French Officer.
The War in the Air, by Ralph de Castro.

Scientific American. December 23. — Present Status of Zeppelin Con-
struction, by L. d'Orcy.

GREAT BRITAIN

Nineteenth Century and After. December. — A Sailor's Account of
the Lowestoft Raid, bv Petty Officer H. J. G. Merrin. Artillery Methods
in Modern War, by Capt. R. IV. Hallous.

Fortnightly Review. December. — What is the Law of Nations? Sir
Frederick Pollock. Sea Heresy, Invasion and Other Matters, by Archibald
Hurd. The Cadet Movement in England, by Capt. Cecil Price. The
Business of War, by Laurence Jerrold.

Professional Notes 405

The Engineer. December 8. — German Torpedo Craft in the War
(designs).

Engineering. December 8. — Salvage Equipment for Raising Submarine
F-4, U. S. Navy, by Naval Constructor J. A. Purer, U. S. Navy. The Naval
War and the Size of Battleships, by Ji'ni. Hovgaard.

Land and Water. November 30. — German Reserves, by Hillaire Belloc.
The New Warfare at Verdun, by A. D. fleurot. The Coming Trade War,
by Arthur Kitson. December 7. — Turning the Big Gun, by Joseph Purncll.
State Control of Factories, In- A. Kitson. Munition Making in America,
by L. R. Free>nan. The Arming of the Fleet, by Arthur Pollen.

CONTINENTAL EUROPE

RiviSTA- Marittima (Italy). October. — Submarines and the Laws of
Naval Warfare, by G. A. Rosso.

Revue des Deux Mondes (Paris ). December. — Protection of Transports,
by Contrc-Amiral Degony.

Naval Operations ix..

INTERNATIONAL NOTES

1. Na\'al War Notes 407

2. Diplomatic Notes 412

NAVAL WAR NOTES

Prepared by Lieutenant R. S. Edwards, U. S. Navy

British Naval Strategy 407

Atlantic Ocean 408

North Sea and Channel 409

" Arctic Ocean 409

The Mediterranean 410

, The Far East 41 r

Index of Ship Losses 411

BRITISH NAVAL STRATEGY

Mr. Archibald Hurd in The Fortnightly Review discusses the strategy
of the British fleet and the effect of the Battle of Jutland as follows :

" The general naval policy of Germany has never been a secret. It has
been stated, on the highest authority, that the German High Seas Fleet will
not fight unless opportunity offers of engaging under favorable conditions,
which means in the vicinity of the German coast where every advantage
can be obtained from the employment of destroyers, submarines, mines, and
aircraft. They realize the advantage, moreover, of having dockyards at
hand to which crippled men-of-war can be taken. The enemy has attempted
to entrap one or more sections of the Grand Fleet. There is no reason to
doubt that it was with that idea that Admiral von Scheer put to sea on
May 31. Informed of the dispositions of the Grand Fleet, he thought
that he could overwhelm the battle cruiser squadrons before Admiral
Jellicoe could reach the scene of action with his greatly superior force of
battleships. The fighting was continued until the battle squadrons appeared,
and then the Germans fled. What conclusion is to be drawn from that
battle, which was mainly a running fight between battle cruisers, at least so
far as the British were concerned? The Germans evaded our battleship
squadrons, half an hour saving them from what would have probably been
annihilation.

'■ A fight to a finish, if the Germans had any hope of success, was neces-
sary for their salvation, but it was not necessary for ours. Before the
fleets met in the North Sea we had little cause for discontent. All the
world's oceans were open to us for use for naval, military, and commercial
purposes, subject only to the restricted menace of submarines. If the Battle
of Jutland had resulted in the extinction of the German High Seas Fleet,
our position would not have been greatly altered : Germany would still have
possessed in her destroyers, submarines, and mine-layers the only active
element of her naval power ; her coast defences — which she believes to be
impregnable — would have remained. The great ships would have gone,
and to that extent our great ships would have been set free. For what pur-
pose could they have been used after the German High Seas Fleet had been
destroyed? It must be apparent that the naval situation would not have

4o8 International Notes

been greatly changed if the victory which Admirals JelHcoe and Beatty
achieved had been so overwhelming as to wipe out every battleship and
battle cruiser under the German ensign. We should have heaved a sigh of
satisfaction and should have congratulated ourselves on a result of psycho-
logical importance. But the Germans would still have had their sub-
marines, destroyers, and mines ; the Baltic would have continued closed ; the
powerful guns and minetields off the German and Belgian coasts would still
have remained.

" The suggestion that it was not absolutely necessary for the British to
fight the Battle of Jutland, in conditions which exposed the British forces
to considerable risk, has been denounced as sea heresy, representing a
denial of the offensive traditions of the British Navy. What is the fact?
Battles are not fought for the sake of fighting, and. in these days and
under the present conditions, it is doubtful whether the stronger Power
does gain much from victoriously engaging the enemy's weaker forces of
battleships and cruisers. They may be sunk, but even then offensive-
defensive elements remain — submarines, destroyers, mines, and coastal
guns — and it is those elements which the weaker Power, having abandoned
already the use of the oceans of the world, hopes to employ. A battle is
fought for a specific purpose. That consists of the right to use the seas.
We have been using the seas with a freedom which has never been known
before during the progress of any war. If the High Seas Fleet were to
disappear, what greater use could we make of the oceans of the world?
That is the crucial test. No battle is unaccompanied by risk, and in the
present circumstances the risks are not all on one side. The whole future
of the Allies depends upon the efficiency and sufficiency of the Grand Fleet.
If that fleet were defeated, although by no means annihilated — tricked into
defeat by the Germans — the aspect of affairs throughout Europe and
throughout the world would be changed. Everything depends on one
factor, and therefore it must surely be evident that the officers commanding
at sea must be ever on their guard against being drawn into action under
conditions favorable to the enemy and deliberately planned by him. We
have little to gain from a victory at sea, but everything to lose by a reverse.
On the otherhand, the Germans, full of devilish resource, as the war has
revealed, have everything to gain and little to lose, beyond a number of
ships which, except for a few costly excursions, have remained inactive in
their ports. The strategy of the Grand Fleet must be defensive, but its
tactics offensive. It must stand ready to refuse the Gerrnans the right to
use the seas — in other words, it must pursue the policy deliberately adopted
in the early days of the war — it must control, and, under reasonable condi-
tions, fight and defeat the enemy. The Grand Fleet, acting from its care-
fully chosen bases, challenges Germany to action, but it insists that the
action shall be fought, if at all, on its' conditions, imposed on the enemy
in virtue both of its strength and its efficiency. In short, the position at sea
may be summed up in a sentence — a battle to us would be a luxury, if a
desirable luxury, for the mental relief which it would give, but to the
Germans it is a necessity, if the iron dominion imposed upon Central
Europe is to be broken before Germany and her partners fall crushed and
ruined.

NAVAL OPERATIONS

From December 14 to January 17

ATLANTIC OCEAN
" SuFFBEN " Sunk by Submarine. — The French battleship Su-ffren, re-
ported missing in the last issue of the Proceedings, was sunk on November
26 off Lisbon by a German submarine, according to an official statement
from Berlin.

Na\al War Notes 409

Submarines and Raiders on American Coast. — Warnings of a German
cruiser at large in the Atlantic were continued by the Allied fleet in the
Western Atlantic during the past month. The radio warnings describe the
vessel as 350 feet long with two masts and one funnel. German submarines
are still reported in the Atlantic and the press says that Great Britain has
met this danger by sending a fleet of heavily armed converted cruisers
disguised as mercliantmen to convoy vessels entering and leaving American
waters. On January 11 the New York Herald published a dispatch saying
that a German cruiser was supposed to be in the neighborhood of the
Windward Passage and that all lighthouses under English control in that
region had been darkened in consequence. There is an unconfirmed report
that one German "commerce raider "was destroyed by British cruisers in
the Atlantic early in January. The exact nature of the belligerent opera-
tions in the Western Atlantic is kept secret, England having decided as a
protective measure to suppress all shipping reports except announcements
of casualties. The dates of departure of British liners are no longer
advertised, and their arrival and departure from British ports is no longer
announced.

German Submarines Reported Sunk. — Press dispatches from Paris and
Amsterdam report that the German submarines Li-45 and U-46 were sunk
in the Bay of Biscay about December 20. There seems to be some doubt
as to whether or not the dispatches refer to a single vessel, and the Nezv
York Herald says it may have been the U-49, which sank the Columbian.
The German reply to these rumors is that the V-46 returned safely to its
home port.

NORTH SEA AND THE CHANNEL

Two British Destroyers Sunk. — Two of his Majesty's torpedo-boat
destroyers were sunk in collision in the North Sea on December 21 during
very bad weather, resulting in the loss of six ofiicers and 49 men. — Govern-
ment Press Bureau in Army and Nazy Gazette.

Cruisers " Shannon " and " Newcastle '' Reported Lost. — Dispatches
from German sources say that the Shannon and the Neweastle were sunk
by mines in November. The British Admiralty denies the loss of these
vessels.

Danes Hear Two Zeppelins Were Destroyed by Fire. — Two Zeppelins
have been destroyed at Tondern, Schleswig, by a fire due to defective electric
wiring in a recently constructed double shed, says a Renter dispatch from
Copenhagen, quoting The Stiffs Tidende of Ribe, Jutland. — New York
Times, 4/1.

ARCTIC OCEAN
German submarines are still reported to be operating in the Arctic
Ocean, their activities being confined, apparently, to commerce destroying.
The capture of one vessel near North Cape is reported from Berlin, the
dispatch describing the prize as the Spezia, which formerly belonged to the
Hamburg-American Line and was confiscated at \'ladivostok at the begin-
ning of the war by the Russians, and used to carry war material from the
United States to Archangel.

4IO IXTERNATIONAL NoTES

MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Transports Sunk. — The French transport Magellan, 6000 tons, was sunk
by submarines ofif Malta on December 11, and the British horse transport
Russian met a similar fate on December 14. On January i, the Ivernia, a
14,000-ton Cunard liner in the British transport service, was torpedoed by a
submarine somewhere in the Mediterranean and sank with the loss of four
officers and 146 men.

"Patrie" Torpedoed ?— An Associated Press dispatch from Amsterdam
says that Berlin has officially announced that a French battleship of the
Patrie class was badly damaged by a torpedo from a German submarine
near Malta on December 12. This statement is denied by the French
Admiralty.

Austrian Destroyers Raid Otranto Strait. — " On the night of Decem-
ber 22-23 four Austro-Hungarian destroyers made a raid in the Otranto
Strait, and after an engagement sank two armed patrol boats. On their way
back at least six hostile destroyers of greater size and speed, evidently of
the Indomito class, blocked their way. A violent combat with guns ensued.
One hostile destroyer was set on fire and three others were hit several
times at short range. The enemy's sea forces^ among which was one vessel
of a more powerful and unknown type, were routed.

" One of our destroyers was hit twice in the funnel and another was hit
in the superstructure. One man was killed. There were no wounded."

The Indomito class consists of 10 Italian destroyers 239 feet long, armed
with one 4.7-inch gun and four 12-pounders.

The official Italian account of this engagement, received last night, said
two French destroyers and one Italian patrol boat were damaged slightly.
—New York Herald.

The " Gaulois " Sunk. — The French armored cruiser Gaulois was
torpedoed in the Mediterranean Sea on December 2y and sank in half an
hour, according to an official announcement made this morning. Owing to
the coolness of the crew and the arrival of patrol boats there were only
four victims, two of whom were killed by the explosion.

The Gaulois belongs to the huge " upper works " class of the late '90s,
which produced her sister ships the Charlemagne and St. Louis. She was
completed in 1899 and refitted in 1907. When sunk her armament was four
12-inch guns, 10 5.5-inch, eight 4-inch, 20 3-pounders, and four submerged
torpedo tubes. The Gaulois' s displacement was 11,260 tons, and she carried
631 officers and men. — New York Times.

British Battleship and Seaplane Tender Sunkj — A British Admiralty
announcement says : " H. M. S. CornwalHs was sunk by an enemy sub-
marine on January 9 in the Mediterranean. The captain and all the officers
are saved, but there are 13 men missing, and it is feared they were killed
by the explosion.

" H. M. seaplane carrier Beu-my-Chrce was sunk by gunfire in Kastelorizo
Harbor, Asia Minor, on January 11. The only casualties were one officer
and four men."

Brassey's Annual says that the CornwalHs is a 14.000-ton battleship com-
pleted in 1904.

Italian Destroyer Sunk. — Berlin reports that an Italian destroyer was
sunk off the island of Corfu early in December.

Naval War Notes 411

Italians Capture Austrian Submarines. — The Italian War Office on
January 14 reported the capture of the Austrian submarines VT-12 and
VC-12. The latter is said to be an ex-German craft, ceded to Austria-
Hungary since the outbreak of the war.

THE FAR EAST

The "Tsukuba" Blown Up. — The Japanese cruiser Tsukuba was
destroyed by an explosion on January 13 in the harbor of Yokosuka, an
important naval station 13 miles southwest of Yokohama. Fire on the
Tsukuba caused the magazine to blow up.

One hundred and fifty-three of the crew of the Tsukuba were killed and
157 injured, many of them seriously.

Many men were rescued from the water. Most of the officers of the
cruiser were ashore.

The cause of the fire is not known. — Neiv York Herald.

The Tsukuba was an armored cruiser of 13,750 tons displacement built at
Kure in 1907. She had a 7-inch armor belt, mounted four 12-inch guns and
her trial speed was 21 knots. She is sometimes referred to as a battle
cruiser.

INDEX OF WAR VESSEL LOSSES MENTIONED IN
THIS NUMBER

Note. — -A complete table of losses since the beginning of the war is
pubHshed quarterly ; the latest appears in the January number of the
Proceedings.

British Vessels

PACE

2 destroyers 409

Russian 410

Ivernia 410

Cornwallis 410

Ben-my-Chree 410

French Vessels

Suffren 40S

Magellan 410

Gaulois 410

Italian Vessels
I destroyer

page

. . 410

Japanese Vessels
Tsukuba

. . 411

Austrian Vessels
VT-r^ . ..

. . 411

VC-12

. . 411

412 Tnterxatkixal Notes

DIPLOMATIC XOTES

From December 15 to January 18

Prepared by A. F. Westcott, Ph. D., Instructor, U. S. Naval Academy

PRESIDENT WILSON'S NOTE TO BELLIGERENTS
On December 18 President Wilson addressed a note to all belligerent
nations, and sent copies for the information of neutrals, suggesting " an
avowal of their respective views as to the terms upon which the war might
be concluded." While remarking that "the objects, which the statesmen
of the beUigerents on both sides have in mind in this war, are virtually the
same, as stated in general terms to their own people and to the world," the
note later adds that " the concrete objects have never been definitely stated."

The President's Note

(The words in brackets in the third paragraph were omitted in the copies
to the Entente Powers)

" Department of State, Washington, D. C, Dec. 18, 1916.

" The President directs me to send you the following communication to be
presented immediately to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the govern-
ment to which you are accredited :

" The President of the United States has instructed me to suggest to the
[here is inserted a designation of the government addressed] a course of
action with regard to the present war, which he hopes that the government
will take under consideration as suggested in the most friendly spirit, and as
coming not only from a friend but also as coming from the representative
of a neutral nation whose interests have been most seriously affected by the
war and whose concern for its early conclusion arises out of a manifest
necessity to determine how best to safeguard those interests if the war is
to continue.

" The suggestion which I am instructed to make the President has long
had it in mind to offer. He is somewhat embarrassed to offer it at this
particular time, because it may now seem to have been prompted by [a
desire to play a part in connection with] the recent overtures of the Central
Powers. It has, in fact, been in no way suggested by them in its origin, and
the President would have delayed offering it until those overtures had been
[independently] answered but for the fact that it also concerns the question
of peace and may best be considered in connection with other proposals
which have the same end in view. The President can only beg that his
suggestion be considered entirely on its own merits and as if it had been
made in other circumstances.

" The President suggests that an early occasion be sought to call out from
all the nations now at war such an avowal of their respective views as to
the terms upon which the war might be concluded and the arrangements
which would be deemed satisfactory as a guaranty against its renewal or
the kindling of any similar conflict in the future as would make it possible
frankly to compare them. He is indifferent as to the means taken to accom-
plish this. He would be happy himself to serve, or even to take the initiative
in its accomplishment, in any way that might prove acceptable, but he has no
desire to determine the method or the instrumentality. One way will be as
acceptable to him as another, if only the great object he has in mind be
attained.

" He takes the liberty of calling attention to the fact that the objects, which
the statesmen of the belligerents on both sides have in mind in this war, are

DiPL():\jAT!c Notes 413

virtually the same, as stated in general terms to their own people and to the
world. Each side desires to make the rights and privileges of weak peoples
and small states as secure against aggression or denial in the future as the
rights and privileges of the great and powerful states now at war. Each
wishes itself to be made secure in the future, along with all other nations
and peoples, against the recurrence of wars like this and against aggression
or selfish interference of any kind. Each would be jealous of the forma-
tion of any more rival leagues to preserve an uncertain balance of power
amid multiplying suspicions ; but each is ready to consider the formation
of a league of nations to insure peace and justice throughout the world.
Before that final step can be taken, however, each deems it necessary first
to settle the issues of the present war upon terms which will certainly
safeguard the independence, the territorial integrity, and the political and
commercial freedom of the nations involved.

■' In the measures to be taken to secure the future peace of the world the
people and government of the United States are as vitally and as directly
interested as the governments now at war. Their interest, moreover, in
the means to be adopted to relieve the smaller and weaker peoples of the
world of the peril of wrong and violence is as quick and ardent' as that of
any other people or government. They stand ready, and even eager, to
co-operate in the accomplishment of these ends, when the war is over, with
every influence and resource at their command. But the war must first be
concluded. The terms upon wdiich it is to be concluded they are not at
liberty to suggest ; but the President does feel that it is his right and his
duty to point out their intimate interest in its conclusion, lest it should pres-
ently be too late to accomplish the greater things which lie beyond its con-
clusion, lest the situation of neutral nations, now exceedingly hard to endure,
be rendered altogether intoleralile, and lest, more than all, an injury be done
civilization itself which can never be atoned for or repaired.

" The President therefore feels altogether justified in suggesting an imme-
diate opportunity for a comparison of views as to the terms which must
precede those ultimate arrangements for the peace of the world, which all
desire and in which the neutral nations as well as those at war are ready
to play their full responsible part. If the contest must continue to proceed
toward undefined ends by slow attrition until the one group of belligerents
or the other is exhausted : if million after million of human lives must
continue to be offered up until on the one side or the other there are no
more to offer ; if resentments must be kindled that can never cool and
despairs engendered from which there can be no recovery, hopes of peace
and of the willing concert of free peoples will be rendered vain and idle.

" The life of the entire world has been profoundly affected. Every part of
the great family of mankind has felt the burden and terror of this unpre-
cedented contest of arms. No nation in the civilized world can be said in
truth to stand outside its influence or to be safe against its disturbing-
effects. And yet the concrete objects for which it is being waged have
never been definitely stated.

" The leaders of the several belligerents have, as has been said, stated
those objects in general terms. But, stated in general terms, they seem the
same on both sides. Never yet have the authoritative spokesmen of either
side avowed the precise objects which would, if attained, satisfy them and
their people that the war had been fought out. The world has been left to
conjecture what definitive results, what actual exchange of guaranties, what
political or territorial changes or readjustments, what stage of military suc-
cess, even, would bring the war to an end.

" It may be that peace is nearer than we know ; that the terms which the
belligerents on the one side and on the other other would deem it necessary
to insist upon are not so irreconcilable as some have feared ; that an inter-
change of views would clear the way at least for conference and make the
permanent concord of the nations a hope of the immediate future, a concert
of nations immediately practicable.

414 International Notes

" The President is not proposing peace ; he is not even offering mediation.
He is merely proposing that soundings be taken in order that we may learn,
the neutral nations with the belligerent, how near the haven of peace may
be for which all mankind longs with an intense and increasing longing. He
believes that the spirit in which he speaks and the objects which he seeks
will be understood by all concerned, and he confidently hopes for a response
which will bring a new light into the affairs of the world.

'■ Lansing."
— New York Times, 21/12.

Secretary Lansing's Explanations. — On December 20, when the Presi-
dent's note was made public, Secretary Lansing issued two statements
regarding its purpose, the second correcting a wrong impression made by
the first. Though the statements aroused much comment, neither contains
ideas that are not clearly implied in the note itself. The first statement
reads :

" The re'asons for the sending of the note were as follows :

" It isn't our material interest we had in mind when the note was sent,
but more and more our own rights are becoming involved by the belliger-
ents on both sides, so that the situation is becoming increasingly critical.

'' I mean by that that we are drawing nearer the verge of war ourselves,
and therefore we are entitled to know exactly what each belligerent seeks,
in order that we may regulate our conduct in the future.

" No nation has been sounded. No consideration of the German over-
tures or of the speech of Lloyd George was taken into account in the
formulation of the document. The only thing the overtures did was to delay
it a few days. It was not decided to send it until Monday. Of course, the
difiiculties that faced the President were that it might be construed as a
movement toward peace and in aid of the German overtures. He specifically
denies that that was the fact in the document itself.

" The sending of this note will indicate the possibility of our being forced
into the war. That possibility ought to serve as a restraining and sobering
force, safeguarding American rights. It may also serve to force an earlier
conclusion of the war. Neither the President nor myself regard this note
as a peace note ; it is merely an effort to get the belligerents to define the
end for which they are fighting."

Later in the day the Secretary issued the following statement :

'■ I have learned from several quarters that a wrong impression was
made by the statement which I made this morning, and I wish to correct
that impression.

" My intention was to suggest the very direct and necessary interest
which this country, as one of the neutral nations, has in the possible terms
which the belligerents may have in mind, and I did not intend to intimate
that the government was considering any change in its policy of neutrality,
which it has consistentl\- pursued in the face of constantly increasing
difiiculties.

'■ I regret that my words were open to any other construction, as I now
realize that they were. I think that the whole tone and language of the
note to the belligerents show the purpose without further comment on my
part. It is needless to say that I am unreservedly in support of that purpose
and hope to see it accepted."

The German Reply. — On December 26 the Central Powers, in messages
of similar purport, replied to the President's note by expressing the
opinion that terms could best be presented in " an immediate meeting of
delegates of the belligerent states at some neutral place." Germany's note
follows :

Diplomatic Notes 415

" The high-minded suggestion made by the President of the United
States of America in order to create a basis for the establishment of lasting
peace has been received and considered by the Imperial Government in the
friendly spirit in which it is expressed.

" In the President's communication the President points out that which
he has at heart and leaves open the choice of the road. To the Imperial
Government an immediate exchange of views seems to be the most appro-
priate road in order to reach the desired result. It begs, therefore, in the
sense of the declaration made on December 12, which held out a hand for
peace negotiations, to propose an immediate meeting of delegates of the
belligerent states at some neutral place.

" The Imperial Government is also of opinion that the great work of
preventing future wars can be begun only after the end of the present
struggle of nations. It will, when the moment shall have come, be ready
with pleasure to collaborate fully with the United States in this exalted
task."

The note concludes in the usual diplomatic terms of politeness.

The Entente Reply. — After considerable delay, the Entente Powers on
January 10 presented a joint note in response to the President's proposal of
December 18. Concurring in the hope of securing an enduring peace, the
note expressed the belief that " it is impossible at the present moment to
attain a peace .... which would permit the establishment of the future of
European nations on a solid basis." After condemning the objects and
methods of the Central Powers, it proceeds, in the third paragraph from
the end, to give a concrete statement of the objects of the Entente in the
war.

The following is the translation of the French note :

"American Embassy, Paris, Jan. 10, 1917.

" The allied governments have received the note which was delivered to
them in the name of the government of the United States on the igth of
December, 1916. They have studied it with the care imposed upon them
both by the exact realization which they have of the gravity of the hour
and by the sincere friendship which attaches them to the American people.

" In a general way they wish to declare that they pay tribute to the eleva-
tion of the sentiment with which the American note is inspired and that
they associate themselves, with all their hopes, with the project for the
creation of a league of nations to insure peace and justice throughout the
world. They recognize all the advantages for the cause of humanity and
civilization which the institution of international agreements, destined to
avoid violent conflicts between nations would prevent — agreements which
must imply the sanctions necessary to insure their execution, and thus to
prevent an apparent security from only facilitating new aggressions.

" But a discussion of future arrangements destined to insure an enduring
peace presupposes a satisfactory settlement of the actual conflict. The
Allies have as profound a desire as the government of the United States
to terminate as soon as possible a war for which the Central Empires are
responsible, and which inflicts such cruel sufferings upon humanity. But
they believe that it is impossible at the present moment to attain a peace
which will assure them reparation, restitution, and such guarantees to which
they are entitled by the aggression for which the responsibility rests with
the Central Powers, and of which the principle itself tended to ruin the
security of Europe — a peace which would, on the other hand, permit the
establishment of the future of European nations on a solid basis. The
allied nations are conscious that they are not fighting for selfish interests,
but, above all, to safeguard the independence of peoples, of right, and of
humanity. '

4i6 International Notes

" The Allies are fully aware of the losses and suffering which the war
'Causes to neutrals as well as to belligerents, and they deplore them, but
they do not hold themselves responsible for them, having in no way
either willed or provoked this war ; and they strive to reduce these damages
in the measure compatible with the inexorable exigencies of their defense
against the violence and the wiles of the enemy.

" It is with satisfaction, therefore, that they take note of the declaration
that the American communication is in nowise associated in its origin 'with
that of the Central Powers transmitted on the i8th of Deceml^er by the
government of the United States. They did not doubt, moreover, the
resolution of that government to' avoid even the appearance of a support,
even moral, of the authors responsible for the war.

" The allied governments believe that they must protest in the most
friendly but in the most specific manner against the assimilation, established
in the American note, between the two groups of belligerents ; this assimila-
tion, based upon public declarations by the Central Powers, is in direct
opposition to the evidence, both as regards responsibility for the past and
as concerns guarantees for the future ; President Wilson, in mentioning it,
certainly had no intention of associating himself with it.

" If there is a historical fact established at the present date, it is the
willful aggression of Germany and Austria-Hungary to insure their hege-
mony over Europe and their economic domination over the world. Germany
proved by her declaration of war, by the immediate violation of Belgium
and Luxemburg, and by her manner of conducting the war, her simulating
contempt for all principles of humanity and all respect for small states.
As the conflict developed, the attitude of the Central Powers and their
allies has been a continual defiance of humanity and civilization.

" Is it necessary to recall the horrors which accompanied the invasion
'of Belgium and of Serbia, the atrocious regime imposed upon the invaded
countries, the massacre of hundreds of thousands of inoffensive Armenians,
the barbarities perpetrated against the populations of Syria, the raids of
Zeppelins on open towns, the destruction ]:)y submarines of passenger
steamers and of merchantmen even under neutral flags, the cruel treatment
inflicted upon prisoners of war, the juridical murders of Miss Cavell, of
Captain Fryatt. the deportation and the reduction to slavery of civil popu-
lations, ct cetera? The execution of such a series of crimes, perpetrated
without any regard for universal reprobation, fully explains to President
Wilson the protest of the Allies.

" They consider that the note which they sent to the United States in reply
to the German note will be a response to the questions put by the American
Government, and, according to the exact words of the latter, ' constitute
a public declaration as to the conditions upon which the war could be
terminated.'

" President Wilson desires more : he desires that the belligerent powers
openly afiirm the objects which they seek by continuing the war; the
Allies experience no difficulty in replying to this request. Their objects in
the war are well known ; they have been formulated on many occasions by
the chiefs of their divers governments. Their objects will not be made
known in detail with all the equitable compensation and indemnities for
damages suffered until the hour of negotiations. But the civilized world
knows that they imply, in all necessity and in the first instance, the restora-
tion of Belgium, of Serbia, and of Montenegro, and the indemnities which
are due them ; the evacuation of the invaded territories of France, of
Russia, and of Rumania, with just reparation ; the reorganization of Europe,
guaranteed by a stable regime and founded as much upon respect of
nationalities and full security and liberty of economic development, which
all nations, great or small, possess, as upon territorial conventions and
international agreements, suitable to guarantee territorial and maritime
frontiers against unjustified attacks ; the restitution of provinces or terri-
tories wrested in the past from the .'Mlies by force or against the will of

Diplomatic Notes 417

their populations ; the Hberation of Itahans, of Slavs, of Rumanians, and of
Tcheco-Slovaques from foreign domination ; the enfranchisement of popu-
lations subject to the bloody tyranny of the Turks; the expulsion from
Europe of the Ottoman Empire, decidedly alien to Western civilization.
The intentions of his Majesty, the Emperor of Russia, regarding Poland
have been clearly indicated in the proclamation which he has just addressed
to his armies.

" It goes without saying that if the Allies wish to liberate Europe from
the brutal covetousness of Prussian militarism it never has been their
design, as has been alleged, to encompass the extermination of the German
peoples and their political disappearance. That which they desire above all
is to insure a peace upon the principles of liberty and justice, upon the
inviolable fidelity to international obligations with which the government
of the United States has never ceased to be inspired.

" United in the pursuit of this supreme object, the Allies are determined,
individually and collectively, to act with all their power and to consent to
all sacrifices to bring to a victorious close a conflict upon which, they are
convinced, not only their own safety and prosperity depend, but also the
future of civilization itself.

Separate Reply from Belgium. — Belgium, in a separate reply of the same
date (January 10), protested against any implication that the objects of the
opposing powers were similar, and supported her protest by reciting the
circumstances which forced her to enter the war. The note closed with the
hope of support from the United States in securing restoration and repara-
tion for Belgium in the definitive settlement of the war.

Skparate Reply from Great Britain. — The press of January 18 pub-
lished an additional note from Mr. Balfour, British Foreign Minister, dated
January 13, and supplementing the Entente note of January .10. The
British statement is a defense of the Entente terms, including the expulsion
of Turkey from Europe, the restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France, and
Italia Irredenta to Italy. The note closes as follows :

" Though, therefore, the people of this country share to the full the
desire of the President for peace, they do not believe peace can be durable
if it be not based on the success of the allied cause. For a durable peace
can hardly be expected unless three conditions are fulfilled : The first is
that existing causes of international unrest should be as far as possible
removed or weakened ; the second is that the aggressive aims and the
unscrupulous methods of the Central Powers should fall into disrepute
among their own peoples ; the third is that behind international law and
behind all treaty arrangements for preventing or limiting hostilities some
form of international sanction should be devised which would give pause to
the hardiest aggressor."

Responses from Neutrals. — Copies of President Wilson's request for a
statement of aims on the part of belligerents were sent to neutral govern-
ments for their information. The replies were in general non-committal.
Switzerland (December 25) noted that the two republics had been for some
time in touch with each other, and frankly pledged the Swiss Government's
cooperation in the President's efforts. Spain in a note dated December 29,
assuming from the manner in which the President's message was ])resented
that her cooperation was invited, expressed sympathy with the movement
but a belief that " the action in which Spain is invited to participate would

4i8 International Notes

not be effective, especially as the Central Empires have expressed their
intention that the peace conditions shall be accorded exclusively among the
belligerents." The language of the identical notes sent by Norway, Sweden,
and Denmark (December 29) was as follows :

" It is with the liveliest interest that the Norwegian Government has
learned of the proposals which the President of the United States has just
made with the purpose of facilitating measures looking toward the estab-
lishment of a durable peace, while at the same time seeking to avoid any
interference which could cause otfense to legitimate sentiments.

" The Norwegian Government would consider itself failing in its duties
toward its own people and toward humanity if it did not express its deepest
sympathy with all efforts which would contribute to put an end to the ever-
increasing suffering and the moral and material losses. It has every hope
that the initiative of President Wilson will arrive at a result worthy of
the high purpose which inspires it.

ENTENTE REPLY TO GERMAN PROPOS.'XL FOR PEACE
CONFERENCE

The attitude of the Entente Powers toward the enemy's proposal for a
conference of belligerents was clearly indicated by Premier Lloyd George's
first speech to the British Parliament on December 19. The Premier in this
speech outlined plans for vigorous prosecution of the war, and reiterated
the terms put forward by his predecessor : " Restitution, reparation, guar-
antees against repetition."

The reply itself took the form of a collective note made public in Paris
and London December 30. After declaring that a proposal for negotiations
was " less an offer of peace than a war maneuver," the note seeks to show
that the war was " desired, provoked, and declared by Germany," and
thereupon refuses " to consider a proposal which is empty and insincere."
The last part of the note deals entirely with Belgium.

The text :

" The allied governments of Belgium, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan,
Montenegro, Portugal, Rumania, Russia, and Serbia, united for the defense
of the liberty of their peoples and faithful to engagements taken not to lay
down their arms separately, have resolved to reply collectively to the pre-
tended propositions of peace which were addressed to them on behalf of the
enemy governments through the intermediary of the United States, Spain,
Switzerland, and Holland.

" Before making any reply, the allied powers desire particularly to pro-
test against the two essential assertions of the notes of the enemy powers
that pretend to throw upon the Allies responsibility for the war and
proclaim the victory of the Central Powers. The allied governments can-
not admit an affirmation doubly inexact and which suffices to render sterile
all tentative negotiations. The allied nations have sustained for 30 months
a war they did everything to avoid. They have shown by their acts their
attachment to peace. That attachment is as strong to-day as it was in 1914.
But it is not upon the word of Germany, after the violation of its engage-
ments, that the peace broken by her may be based.

" A mere suggestion without a statement of terms, that negotiations
should be opened, is not an offer of peace. The putting forward by the
Imperial Government of a sham proposal lacking all substance and precision
would appear to be less an offer of peace than a war maneuver. It is
founded on calculated misinterpretation of the character of the struggle
in the past, the present, and the future.

Diplomatic Notes 419

" As for the past, the German note takes no account of the facts, dates,
and figures, which estabHsh that the war was desired, provoked, and
declared b}' Germany and Austria-Hungary.

■' At The Hague Conference it was a German delegate who refused all
proposals for disarmament. In July, 1914, it was Austria-Hungary, who,
after having addressed to Serbia an unprecedented ultimatum, declared
war upon her in spite of the satisfaction which had at once been accorded.

" The Central Empires then rejected all attempts made by the Entente to
bring about a pacific solution of a purely local conflict. Great Britain sug-
gested a conference ; France proposed an international commission ; the
Emperor of Russia asked the German Emperor to go to arbitration, and
Russia and Austria-Hungary came to an understanding on the eve of the
conflict. But to all these efl^orts Germany gave neither answer nor effect.

" Belgium was invaded by an empire which had guaranteed her neutrality
and which had the assurance to proclaim that treaties were ' scraps of
paper,' and that ' necessity knows no law.'

" At the present moment these sham offers on the part of Germany rest
on the war map of Europe alone, which represents nothing more than a
superficial and passing phase of the situation and not the real strength of
the belligerents. A peace concluded upon these terms would be only to the
advantage of the aggressors, who, after imagining that they would reach
their goal in two months, discovered after two years, that they could
never attain it.

" As for the future, the disasters caused by the German declaration of
war and the innumerable outrages committed by Germany and her allies
against both belligerents and neutrals demand penalties, reparation and
guarantees. Germany avoids mention of any of these.

" In reality these overtures made by the Central Powers are nothing more
than a calculated attempt to influence the future course of war and to end
it by imposing a German peace. The object of these overtures is to create
dissension in public opinion in the allied countries. But that public opinion
has. in spite of all the sacrifices endured by the Allies, already given its
answer with admirable firmness, and has denounced the empty pretense
of the declaration of the enemy powers.

"They [the peace overtures] liave the further object of stiffening public
opinion in Germany and in the countries allied to her — one and all severely
tried by their losses, worn out by economic pressure and crushed by the
supreme effort which has been imposed upon their inhabitants.

" They endeavor to deceive and intimidate public opinion in neutral
countries, whose inhabitants have long since made up their minds where
the initial responsibilities lie and are far too enlightened to favor the
designs of Germany by abandoning the defense of human freedom.

" Finalh', these overtures attempt to justify in advance in the eyes of the
world a new series of crimes — submarine warfare, deportations, forced
labor and forced enlistment of the inhabitants against their own countries,
and violations of neutrality.

" Fully conscious of the gravity of this moment, but equally conscious of
its requirements, the allied governments, closely united to one another and
in perfect sympathy with their peoples, refuse to consider a proposal which
is empty and insincere.

" Once again the Allies declare that no peace is possible so long as they
have not secured reparation for violated rights and liberties, the recognition
of the principle of nationality and of the free existence of small states, so
long as they have not brought about a settlement calculated to end once
and for all forces which have constituted a perpetual menace to the nations,
and to afford the only effective guarantee for the future security of the
world.

" In conclusion, the allied powers think it necessary to put forward the
following considerations, which show the special situation of Belgium after
two and a half years of war. In virtue of the international treaties signed

iNTERNA'liONAL NOTES

by tive great European powers, of which Germany was one, Belgium
enjoyed before the war a special status, rendering her territory inviolable
and placing her, under the guarantee of the powers, outside all European
conflicts. She was, however, in spite of these treaties, the first to suffer the
aggression of Germany. For this reason the Belgian Government thinks
it necessary to define the aims which Belgium has never ceased to pursue
while fighting side by side with the Entente Powers for right and justice.

■■ Belgium has always scrupulously fulfilled the duties which her neutrality
imposed upon her. She has taken up arms to defend her independence
and her neutrality violated by Germany and to show that she remains
faithful to her international obligations.

" On the 4th of August, 1914, in the Reichstag the German Chancellor
admitted that this aggression constituted an injustice, contrary to the laws
of nations, and pledged himself in the name of Germany to repair it.
During two and a half years this injustice has been cruelly aggravated by
the proceedings of the occupying forces, which have exhausted. the resources
of the country, ruined its industries, devastated its towns and villages, and
have been responsible for innumerable massacres, executions and imprison-
ments.

" At this very moment, while Germany is proclaiming peace and humanity
to the world, she is deporting Belgian citizens by thousands and reducing
them to slavery.

" Belgium before the war asked for nothing liut to live in harmony with
her neighbors. Her King and her government have liut one aim — the
reestablishment of peace and justice. But they only desire peace which
would assure to their country legitimate reparation, guarantees and safe-
guards for the future." — A'. ]'. Tiiiirs, 31/^2.

Entkntk Confkrknck .\t Rome

A conference of Entente ministers and military leaders was held in Rome
during the week ending January 6. Though the results are not disclosed,
the object of the conference was presumably to supplement unity of airus
with better coordination of action on the various fronts, and in particular
to agree on a more positive policy in Greece. It is significant that General
Sarrail was present at the conference, and that on December 31 a new
ultimatum was dispatched to Greece.

British 1mi'kri.\]. W.-xr Conference

Great Britain has issued a call to the prime ministers of her self-govern-
ing dominions for a war conference to be held the latter part of February.
The purpose is indicated liy the telegram sent out by the Colonial Secretary
on December 25:

" I wnsh to explain that what his Majesty's government contemplates is
not a session of the ordinary Imperial Conference, but a special war con-
ference of the empire. They, therefore, invite your Prime Minister to
attend a series of special and continuous meetings of the War Cabinet, in
order to consider urgent questions affecting the prosecution of the war,
the possible conditions on which, in agreement with our allies, we could
assent to its termination, and the problems which will then immediately
arise. For the purpose of these meetings your Prime Minister would be
a racml)er of tlie \^'ar Ca))inet. — London Times, 27/12.

Diplomatic Notes 421

PENDING SUBMARINE CONTKO\ERSIES
" Arabia "
According to a statement issued 1)y Secretary Lansing on December 23,
the Department of State had received information from the British Govern-
m.ent that the P. and O. Hner Arabia, torpedoed November 6, was not and
had not been a government transport, though she carried some passengers
traveling at government expense.

'■ COI.LMBIAX "

The German reply to inquiries of the United States regarding the
American steamship Colu))ibiaii, sunk in the Mediterranean November 8,
was made public December 19. The reply justified the destruction of the
vessel on the grounds; (i) that, contrary to the American statement, the
vessel carried a cargo of steel and other war materials destined for Genoa :
and (2) that, after having first been dismissed by the submarine, the vessel
sent out wireless calls conveying information to the enemy. The vessel
was then stopped, her papers were examined, and she was sunk the follow-
ing day. The crew were put aboard a Norwegian ship and landed at the
Bay of Camarinas, Spain.

" Russian "

The British steamer Russian, having landed a cargo of horses at
Salonika, and while returning to Newport News, was torpedoed on
December 14 near Malta. In the heavy seas and darkness, one of the life-
boats capsized with the loss of 28 men, including 17 American muleteers.
A detailed report from the American Consul at Malta was made public
December 21.

Captain Blaikif.

According to a report from the U. S. Embassy at Berlin (December 19),
the German Government has decided that Captain Blaikie, accused of
attempting to ram a German submarine, should be held as an ordinary
prisoner of war. The decision is based on the ground that Captain Blaikie's
ship, the Caledonia, was an armed cruiser, and that the captain was carrying
out his duty as a belligerent.

CABINET CHANGES
A u. stria

Following the fall of the von Korber Cabinet, and the failure of Alexander
Spitzmiiller, leader of the more strongly Germanistic element in Austria.
to secure a ministry, the task was turned over to Count Clam-Martinitz. a
Bohemian.

The London Times (December 22), in giving the caliinet appointments.
adds the following comment :

" Should the Clam-Martinitz Cabinet be formed, and should it include
Dr. Baernreither, it would probably represent a less drastic policy of
Germanization in Austria than would have been represented by a Spitz-
miiller Cabinet. From information given by the Austrian press and con-

422 International Notes

firmed from other sources, it is clear that the fall of Dr. von Korber was
due to his stand against a scheme of ruthless Germanization. The scheme
appears to have contemplated the complete exclusion of the Slav provinces
of Galicia and Dalm.atia from Austria proper, the reorganization of admin-
istrative districts in Bohemia so as to place the Czechs at the mercy of the
Germans, and the proclamation of German as the language of state in
Austria instead of the eight Austrian languages (German, Polish, Ruthen-
ian, Czech, Slovene, Italian, Serbo-Croatian, and Rumanian) which have
hitherto enjoyed equal ofificial recognition, though German has naturally
been the predominant tongue and the general medium of intercourse."

France
By decrees of December 27 the title of Marshal of France was revived
to honor General Joffre and he v^^as retired from active participation in the
war councils. The control of the war is in the hands of the War Com-
mittee, consisting, as stated in the preceding issue of the Institute, of
the President, Premier, and Ministers of War, Marine, National Manu-
factures, and Finance.

Rl'ssia

The latest of the extraordinary convulsions in the Russian Government
was the resignation (January 9) of the Russian Premier, Alexander
Trepoff. and the Minister of Public Instruction, Count Ignatieff. after less
than two months in office. M. trepoff, whose appointment was regarded
as a victory for the Duma, is succeeded by Prince Golitzine, 56 years of
age, a member of the extreme conservative and reactionary group. While
announcing that all efforts are to be centered in the prosecution of the
war, the new Premier is averse to present internal reforms and to parlia-
mentary interference. His views are in accord with those of M.
Protopopoff, Minister of the Interior, who was an element of discord in
Trepott's Cabinet and who is regarded as dominant in the present ministry.

According to a report from Berlin (January 12), the fall of Trepoff was
connected with the murder of the monk Gregory Rasputin. Attempts to
shield those responsible for the murder led the Czar to take a decisive stand
against radical elements.

TtRKEY

According to a note received in Washington on January i, Turkey
repudiates the guardianship of the great Powers and proclaims her " entry
into the group of European Powers, with all the rights and prerogatives
of an entirely independent government." The Ottoman Government repudi-
ates the Treaty of Paris of 1856 and the Treaty of Berlin of 1878, and
announces that it has allied itself with Germany and Austria-Hungary " on
a footing of entire equality." — A". }'. Nation, 4/1.

Greece
On December 31 Great Britain, France, and Russia presented a collective
note to Greece again insisting on execution of the demands of the Allies,
including transportation to the Peloponnessus of all cannon, machine guns,
and surplus munitions, prohibition of meetings of reservists north of the
Isthmus of Corinth, establishment of Allies' control, and apology and

Diplomatic Notes 423

reparation for the clash with Allies' forces December i and 2. The note
pledged the Allies to maintain the neutral zone between Royalist and
Venizelist forces, and stated that the blockade would be continued until
satisfaction was accorded.

The Greek reply was at first evasive, but according to later dispatches
(January 17) the Greek Government accepted the Entente demands in their
entirety, including the immediate release of Venizelist prisoners.

On January i Great Britain announced the appointment of Earl Granville,
Counsellor of the British Embassy at Paris, as diplomatic representative
to the Venizelos Government. France appointed Robert de Billy, Counsel-
lor at Rome, to similar duties.

Mexico
On January 15 the American-Mexican Joint Commission was formally
dissolved. The American commissioners recommended that an ambassador
be sent to Mexico to resume negotiations, in particular regarding an inter-
national claims commission, protection of American life and property in
Mexico, and protection of the border.

REVIEW OF BOOKS

SUBJFXTS OF PROFESSIONAL INTEREST

" Inside the German Empire." By Herbert Ba3'ard Swope. 400 pages ; 16
illustrations. Price $2.00 net. (New York: The Century Company, 1917.)

An interesting outline of existing conditions from within the German Em-
pire as seen by an American and set forth in a dispassionate style flowing;
with the undercurrent of the German point of view.

Mr. Swope expresses no personal opinions nor draws conclusions as to
final outcome. He visualizes the present every-day life in the heart of the
empire and strikingly records facts collected along the western battle lines.
His manner of presentation is most stimulating and is a decided relief from
the usual treatm-ent of the many side lights on the great war. H. S. C.

" Examples in Alternating Currents." Volume I. F. E. Austin. Second
ed. 220 pages; illustrated. Leather, $2.40. (New Hampshire: igi6. )

The introductory pages of this book present those principles of geometry,
trigonometry and calculus which are of most importance in electrical
engineering ; following these examples in pure mathematics there are given'
57 electrical problems well chosen to illustrate the fundamentals of alter-
nating currents. A number of pages are devoted to tables which provide
short cuts in arithmetical work.

The diagrams, always an important part of an electrical problem, are
especially helpful, and the explanations of mathematical processes are so
clear as to make this book valuable both to students who have the guidance,
of a teacher and to those who are attempting to study electricity by
themselves. J. B. A.

" How to Make Low-Pressure Transformers." Prof. F. K. Austin.
Third ed. 29 pages; illustrated. 40 cents. (New Hampshire: 1916.)

This book tells very completely, and in simple language, how to con-
struct a transformer to reduce the pressure from no volts to about S volts,
as a mmimum, for experimental purposes.

The author explains, step by step, how to construct a highly efficient
transformer having a ring-shaped core and a secondary winding provided
with taps for producing a variety of voltages. Directions are also given
for building a transformer having a rectangular core, with coils wound
on removable bobbins in order that the effect of various windings may
be studied.

Calculations are made to determine the cost of operation, to explain
such terms as efficiency and regulation, and to show how the design may
be modified where it is desired to operate the transformer on 220 volts.

J. B. A.

426 Review of Books

'■ The Boy's Book of Famous Warships." B3' William O. Stevens, Pro-
fessor of English, United States Naval Academy. 236 pages. Price $1.60.
(New York: McBride & Co., 1916.)

To write in a simple, familiar way, and yet to avoid the condescending,
" Now my little readers " style, is the achievement of not every book for
boys. Mr. Stevens' present volume has this merit; and, like his Story
of Oitr Navy (Harpers), it does worthy service in gratifying the eagerness
of youngsters for books about battles and about the sea.

Taking his examples from all periods, and writing from ample historical
knowledge, the author gives a good bird's-eye view of naval warfare from
Salamis to present times. ' Down to the Victory or even the Monitor, the
famous ships are also typical war-craft of their periods and fought in
battles of historic importance. From this point of view, it is unfortunate
that the Emden, whose exploits are related in the last chapter, is not a
better example of modern naval progress.

From an international standpoint, also, the book may appear a bit one-
sided. Of the 14 ships whose careers are outlined, six are British and six
American ; but there is no representative of Holland, France, or Spain,
though these nations in their day were formidable rivals of Britain for sea
control. Were the ships nameless in which the elder Tromp and De Ruyter
first made naval warfare a science and fought valiantly against England
and her allies? For the sake of variety, would it not have been well to
chronicle the five or six hard-fought engagements of Suffren's flagship
Her OS, in which the greatest of French admirals shook British power in
the East, and once inflicted on his opponent losses exceeding those of the
I'ictory at Trafalgar?

But in naval matters, Britain has always claimed the lion's share; and
since this book is for American boys, it is no doubt right that half of its
pages should be devoted to the stirring deeds of our own ships, from the
Constitution and Essex to the Alabama and the little Htuiley — the first
successful submarine. The book closes with an axiom that time has not
deprived of its force : " It is still true now as it was in the days of the oar
that the things that make a man-of-war famous are the courage, initiative,
and skill of the officers and men who fight on her decks." A. F. W.

NOTICE

The U. S. Naval Institute was established in 1873, having for its object
the advancement of professional and scientific knowrledge in the Navy. It
is now in its forty-fourth year of existence, trusting as heretofore for its
support to the officers and friends of the Navy. The members of the Board
of Control cordially invite the co-operation and aid of their brother officers
and others interested in the Navy, in furtherance of the aims of the Insti-
tute, by the contribution of papers and communications upon subjects of
interest to the naval profession, as well as by personal support and influence.

On the subject of membership the Constitution reads as follows:

ARTICLE VII

Sec. I. The Institute shall consist of regular, life, honorary, and associate
members.

Sec. 2. Officers of the Navy, Marine Corps, and all civil officers attached
to the Naval Service, shall be entitled to become regular or life members,
without ballot, on payment of dues or fees to the Secretary and Treasurer.
Members who resign from the Navy subsequent to joining the Institute
will be regarded as belonging to the class described in this Section.

Sec. 3. The Prize Essayist of each year shall be a life member without
payment of fee.

Sec. 4. Honorary members shall be selected from distinguished Naval and
Military Officers, and from eminent men of learning in civil life. The
Secretary of the Navy shall be, ex officio, an honorary member. Their
number shall not exceed thirty (30). Nominations for honorary members
must be favorably reported by the Board of Control, and a vote equal to
one-half the number of regular and life members, given by proxy or pres-
ence, shall be cast, a majority electing.

Sec. 5. Associate members shall be elected from Officers of the Army,
Revenue Cutter Service, foreign officers of the Naval and Military pro-
fessions, and from persons in civil life who may be interested in the pur-
poses of the Institute.

Sec. 6. Those entitled to become associate members may be elected life
members, provided that the number not officially connected with the Navy
and Marine Corps shall not at any time exceed one hundred (100).

Sec. 7. Associate members and life members, other than those entitled to-
regular membership, shall be elected as follows : " Nominations shall be
made in writing to the Secretary and Treasurer, with the name of the mem-
ber making them, and such nominations shall be submitted to the Board of
Control, and, if their report be favorable, the Secretary and Treasurer shall
make known the result at the next meeting of the Institute, and a vote shall
then be taken, a majority of votes cast by members present electing."

Sec. 8. The annual dues for regular and associate members shall be two
dollars, all of which shall be for a year's subscription to the United States
Naval Institute Proceedings, payable upon joining the Institute, and upon
the first day of each succeeding January. The fee for life membership
shall be thirty dollars, but if any regular or associate member has paid his
dues for the year in which he wishes to be transferred to life membership,
or has paid his dues for any future year or years, the amount so paid shall
be deducted from the fee for life membership.

ARTICLE X

Sec. 2. One copy of the Proceedings, when published, shall be furnished
to each regular and associate member (in return for dues paid), to each
life member (in return for life membership fee paid), to honorary mem-
bers, toeach corresponding society of the Institute, and to such libraries
and periodicals as may be determined upon by the Board of Contrt)!.

The Proceedings are published monthly, and anyone may subscribe for
them. The annual subscription is $3.00; single copies, 50' cents for the
bi-monthly and quarterly, and 30 cents for the monthly Proceedings.
Annual dues for members and associate members, $2.00. Fee for life
membership, $30.00.

All letters should be addressed U. S. Naval Institute, Annapolis, Md.,
and all checks, drafts, and money orders should be made payable to the same.

SPECIAL NOTICE

NAVAl INSTITUTE PRIZE ESSAY, 1918

A prize of two hundred dollars, with a gold medal, and a life-member-
ship (unless the author is already a life member) in the Institute, is
offered by the Naval Institute for the best essay presented on any subject
pertaining to the naval profession.

On the opposite page are given suggested topics. Essays are not limited
to these topics and no additional weight will be given an essay in awarding
the prize because it is written on one of these suggested topics over one
written on any subject pertaining to the naval profession.

The following rules will govern this competition :

1. The award for the prize will be made by the Board of Control, voting
by ballot and without knowledge of the names of the competitors.

2. Each competitor to send his essay in a sealed envelope to the Secre-
tary and Treasurer on or before January i, 1918. The name of the writer
shall not be given in this envelope, but instead thereof a motto. Accom-
panying the essay a separate sealed envelope will be sent to the Secretary
and Treasurer, with the motto on the outside and writer's name and motto
inside. This envelope is not to be opened until after the decision of the
Board.

3. The successful essay to be published in the Proceedings of the Insti-
tute ; and the essays of other competitors, receiving honorable mention, to
be published also, at the discretion of the Board of Control ; and no change
shall be made in the text of any competitive essay, published in the Pro-
ceedings of the Institute, after it leaves the hands of the Board.

4. If, in the opinion of the Board of Control, the best essay presented
is not of sufficient merit to be awarded the prize, it may receive " Honor-
able Mention " or such other distinction as the Board may decide.

5. In case one or more essays receive " Honorable Mention," the writers
thereof will receive a minimum prize of seventy-five dollars and a life-
membership (unless the author is already a life member) in the Institute,
the actual amounts of the awards to be decided by the Board of Control
m each case.

6. An essay not having received honorable mention may be published
also, at the discretion of the Board of Control, but only with the consent
of the author.

7. The essay is limited to fifty (50) printed pages in the Proceedings of
the Institute.

8. It is requested that all essays be submitted typewritten and in duplicate,
if practicable ; essays submitted written in longhand and in single copy will,
however, receive equal consideration.

9. In the event of the prize being awarded to the winner of a previous
year, a gold clasp, suitably engraved, will be given in lieu of the gold
medal.

By direction of the Board of Control.

J. W. GREEN SLADE,
Lieut. Cotnmander. U. S. N.. Secretary and Treasurer

PRIZE ESSAY TOPICS
Suggested at the Invitation of the Board of Control

THE PRESIDENT OF THE NAVAL INSTITUTE, THE SUPERINTENDENT
OF THE NAVAL ACADEMY, THE PRESIDENT OF THE NAVAL WAR
COLLEGE, AND THE COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF OF THE ATLANTIC,
PACIFIC AND ASIATIC FLEETS.

" The Mutual Relations of Gunnery and Tactics.''

" The Place of the Naval Officer in International Affairs."

" The Evolution of Naval Doctrine from National Character."

" The Training of Enlisted Personnel to Produce Modern Man-o'-

Warsmen : (a) Military Training; (b) Moral Training;

and Flotillas."
" A Personnel Reserve for the Naval Service."
"" Value of Speed as an Oiifensive Element in Battleship Strategy

and Tactics, as Compared with Armor."

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Welded Steel Tanks,
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THE CONTINENTAL IRON WORKS

ESTABLISHED 1859 Wcst and C&lycT Sts . BOROUGH OF BROOKLYN. N. Y.

INCORPORATED 1887 Greenpoint Ferry from East 23rd Street. New York

LIDGERWOOD

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Built on duplicate part system.
A "SUPERFINE" WINCH— Flat, pol-
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These Winches meet the exacting specifi-
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LIDGERWOOD MFG. CO., 96 liberty St., New York

BRANCH HOUSES:

Chicago, Boston, Plttsburp, Philadelphia. Seattle, London. Eng.

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For Space and Rates in our advertising
pages communicate with the

SECRETARY AND TREASURER

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE
ANNAPOLIS, MD.

and not with our former agent

Please mention the PROCEEDINGS when writing advertisers

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WITH IMPROVED VALVE MOTION

FOR

HIGH STEAM PRESSURE

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(16)

You Are An American!

Keep In Touch^'With Your Nation
By READING the

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THE ORGAN OF PREPAREDNESS

AND OF

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On All Newsstands 15c. the Copy Yearly Subscription $1.50

Special Series of Illustrations Now Appearing

New American Super-Dreadnaughts Soldier and Sailor Monuments of the

American Military Schools Country

American Geniuses of Invention American Cities Worth Defending

Notable Portraits of American Heroes Leading Cartoons of the Month

Army and Navy Officers in Command Our National Parks

Women Leaders of National Defense Our Lands Across the Sea

Regular Departments Each Afont/i

National Events of the The Army and the Navy Patriotic and Historical

Month Universal Service ?\ayr, and Photo Plays

The Administration Civilian Training Magazine Articles of the

Congressional Military Education Month

Political Civic Progress New Books

National Reform Colonial America

Says The Army and Navy Journal: — "The initial number of ^r ,^

June, 1916, gives excellent promise of the future of the publi- ^r ^o ^

cation." '^ *J^ ^^

Says The Worcester (Mass.) Gazette:— "The text <^V e^.'^o"^^
cartoons and general spirit of the publication are so O^ ^ -^

excellent that we cannot help wishing it God- aI^ .<C^ ^

speed in its beneficent work." ^\ a,^ v^?' •'

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(17)

METALLIC PACKINGS

FOR MAIN ENGINE PISTON RODS
VALVE STEMS AND AUXILIARIES

The United States Metallic Packing Co.

Philadelphia

ESTABLISHED 189(i

HERMAN COHN

45 SANDS STREET, BROOKLYN, N. Y.

Our Specialty: Outfitting Chief Petty and Warrant Officers

Branch Stores, 712 Crawford St., Portsmouth, Va.
275 Thames St., Newport, R. I.

F. J. SCHMIDT CO.

Navy and Army Tailors

Phone

A COMPLETE LINE OF GOODS FOR CIVILIAN DRESS
No. 241 ANNAPOLIS,

UNDERWOOD STANDARD TYPEWRITER

The UNDERWOOD is designed on correct mechanical principles
is made of the best material, and is unequaled in speed, accuracy, ease
of operation and durability. Underwood sales exceed those of any
other machine.

"The Machine You M^ill Eventually Buy"

UNDERWOOD TYPEWRITER CO.

1206 F STREET, X. W. WASHINGTON, D. C.

Please mention the PKOCEEDINGS when writing advertisers
(18)

THE ALLEN DENSE AIR ICE MACHINE

« „ HJlii

Contains onl\ air of 75 lbi> pressure in refrigerating pipes. At about 30
degrees below zero wlien seawater is at 90 degrees. More than two hun-
dred ill use on U. S. Naval \ easels. Some since 1888.

H. B. ROELKER, 41 Maiden Lane New York

REILLY SPECIALTIES

HEATER

STEEL SHELL

Feed Water Heaters
Evaporators
Distillers
Oil Coolers
Fuel Oil Heaters
Grease Extractors
Filters, Etc.

WRITE FOR BULLETINS

EVAPORATOR
SUBMERGED TYPE

THE GRISCOM-RUSSELL CO.

2152 WEST ST. BLDG.

NEW YORK

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NICKEL

Shot — High and low carbon. Ingots — Two sizes, 25 lbs., 50 lbs.
ELECTROLYTIC NICKEL-99.80%

Prime Metals for the Manufacture of Nickel Steel, German Silver, Anodes and all re-
melting purposes. Our Nickel is produced as Rods, Sheets, Strip Stock, Wire and Tubes

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e are SOLE PRODUCERS of this natural
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^W't^fT^AjV^ Manufactured forms are Rods, Flats, Castings, Tubes,
SienT^rk Sheets, Strip Stock and Wire

Kpk. U. S. PHt. Off.

SEND INQUIRIES DIRECT TO US

The International Nickel Company

43 EXCHANGE PLACE, NEW YORK

The Lord Baltimore Press

PRINTERS AND
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BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.

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Tde GoHia steam Trap

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Especially adapted for Marine use

WE ALSO MANUFACTURE

REDUCING VALVES, PUMP GOVERNORS, BLOW OFF
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ESTABLISHED 1844

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Manufacturers
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For use in Army, Navy, Marine Corps, National Guard, Naval Militia, Schools and

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Adopted by the War Department and issued by the Ordnance Department to organizations of the
Army, and to the Organized Militia (under Sec. 1661 R. S.), and for sale to educational institutions
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Price, 20 Cents, Post Paid Discount of 20 % on quantities of 50 or more copies
Delivery Charges Collect

INTERNATIONAL PRINTING CO.

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(21)

Bethlehem Steel Company

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Armor Plate Turrets Projectiles

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Castings Shafting Forgings

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It is a monthly magazine devoted to the interests of the
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ELECTRIC BOAT
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. ( 24 )

■iiiiMaiiwtiiii

U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE
PROCEEDINGS

Number 168

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Indiana Plant
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